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FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

A TREATISE ON 

MOLDING AND CASTING 

IN THEIR VARIOUS DETAILS 



BY 



JAMES M. TATE 

AND 

MELVIN 0. STONE, M.E. 



Prepared for the Use of Students in the College of 
Engineering, University of Minnesota 



THIRD EDITION, REVISED 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 

1909 



<o 



n 



^ \^ 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Cooies Received 

JAN \2 1909 

^ Copyri«nt tntry 
W.ASS i d XXc, No, 

"•aw 

■ ■ ' .I ■ ii I , t 



Copyright, 1904, 190C' 

BY 

JAMES M. TATE 



i5\ 



6% #riMttifit frpBB 

Kohrrt flrummmiri anb Qloratianjj 

Nwn lark 



INTRODUCTION 

In administering the work in foundry practice at the 
University of Minnesota, the want of a good text-book 
has been a serious disadvantage. The work of the shop 
and that of the class-room should be correlated — shop- 
work should be studied and discussed in the class-room, 
and examples illustrating the various principles under- 
lying good practice should be worked out in the shop. 

While there have been some excellent books written 
upon the subject of foundry practice, yet, as a rule, these 
have been written with the needs of the experienced 
molder in view rather than those of the beginner. For 
this reason it is a difficult matter to teach the subject so 
that the student will acquire an intelligent understanding 
of its various details. The nomenclature and shop phrase- 
ology are not sufficiently elementary for the average 
beginner to grasp the statement presented, and much time 
is frequently spent in explaining an author's meaning. 

The present little treatise has been written with a full 
knowledge of the problems involved and with the object 
of lessening some of the difficulties which arise in teach- 
ing the subject. The authors are both men of wide ex- 
perience in foundry practice and its correlated subjects. 
Mr. Tate is an experienced pattern maker, who has been 
in charge of the pattern shop at the University of Min- 
nesota for the past fifteen years, and during a part of 
this time he has also had charge of the work in the 
foundry. Mr. Stone is a graduate of the University, 

iii 



iv INTRODUCTION 

who has given especial attention to foundry work, both 
from the standpoint of the chemist and from that of the 
molder. 

In presenting this work on foundry practice, the 
authors realize that it is not a complete treatise on the 
subject. The aim has been to produce a book in which 
the principles of foundry practice are set forth concisely 
and clearly. The needs of the engineering student rather 
than those of the practical foundry man were kept in view. 
To this end numerous examples are given representa- 
tive of the different kinds of molding, and it is believed 
that the simple methods used in illustrating and describ- 
ing the various operations involved and the reasons there- 
for will give the student a ready knowledge of the details 
of molding which will go far to supplement the practical 
work of the foundry, which, in a college course, must 
necessarily be limited. 

While the treatment is thus somewhat brief, the sub- 
ject matter as here presented is intended to cover all 
ordinary work in foundry practice, including both brass 
and iron casting. 

A glossary of foundry terms has been added, as it has 
been found that to obtain the greatest value from a work 
of this character the reader must become familiar with 
names and expressions used by foundrymen, for even if 
it were possible to eliminate shop expressions, it would 
be undesirable to do so. 

J. J. Flather, 

Professor of Mechanical Engineering, 
Minneapolis, Minnesota, University of Minnesota 

September, 1904. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

Green Sand Molding i 

Plain mold. Parted pattern. Coping out. Bedding in. Set- 
ting cores. Check molding. 

CHAPTER II 

Dry Sand Molding 53 

Dry sand mixtures. Venting. Drying, finishing, blacking. 
Skin-drying, pit mold, and sweeps. 

CHAPTER III 

Molding Sand, Molder's Tools, Molding Machines, and 

Equipment 69 

Facing sand. Flasks. Gating. Gaggers. Soldiers, Nails 

and rods. Patching. Stopping off. Venting cores. Chaplets. 

Setting chaplets. Weighting and clamping. Shrink holes. 

Burning on, or casting on. Bench molding. Snap-flasks. A 
match. Molding machines. 

CHAPTER IV 

Cores, Core Boxes, Core Machines, and Drying Ovens 123 

CHAPTER V 

Cupolas, Blowers, and Melting Furnaces eor Iron 151 

Tapping hole. Tuyeres. Charging door, hearth. Slag notch, 
lining, charging, tapping out. Ladles, blowers. 

v 



VI CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VI 

PAGE 

Chilled Castings 172 

The chill. Mixture of iron for chilled casting. 

CHAPTER VII 
Malleable Castings 1 76 

The malleablizing process. 

CHAPTER VIII 

Cleaning Castings 1S0 

Hand work. Tumbling barrels, rattlers. Sand blast, pneu- 
matic hammers, portable grinders. 

CHAPTER IX 

Compressed Air for Foundry .Purposes 185 

Pneumatic crane. Hoist. Molding machine, chipping ham- 
mer. Sand rammer. Sifter. 

CHAPTER X 

Steel Castings 195 

The sand mixture. The mold. The mixtures of metal. Melt- 
ing and converting. 

CHAPTER XI 

Brass Founding 199 

Brass molding. The sand. The flask. The furnace. Oil 
furnaces. 

CHAPTER XII 

Cast-iron Alloys 208 

Tables for foundry use. 

CHAPTER XIII 
Glossary of Foundry Terms 215 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



CHAPTER I 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



The method of proceeding in making a mold for a 
plain casting may be demonstrated by consideration of 
the pattern shown in Fig. i. After having the sand 




Fig. i. 



properly tempered, the turn-over board is placed on a 
sand bed so as to have bearing all over to avoid rocking 
or unevenness of the top. The pattern is then placed 



2 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

on the board as shown in Fig. 2. The drag may now be 
placed over the pattern and facing sand riddled onto the 



Fig. 2. 

pattern. Cover the pattern with sand to a depth of 
approximately 6 inches, as shown in Fig. 3. The sand is 
rammed around the edge of the flask with the pein rammer 
by directing it as shown at A, Fig. 3. It is next rammed 
around the pattern with the rammer directed as shown at 
B, Fig. 3. The sand falling between these two rammings 




Fig. 3. 

is then rammed to an even hardness sufficient to form a 
firm body and allow the free escape of the gases. 

Care should be taken in ramming to avoid striking the 
rammer nearer to the pattern than one inch. Wherever 
the pein strikes the pattern, a hard spot is left in the 
sand which will cause a scab on the casting. The flask 
is now filled full of heap sand and rammed with the butt 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 3 

rammer, as shown in Fig. 4. The drag may now be 
struck off with a straight edge even with its top. A thin 
layer of loose sand is then scattered over the surface to 
ensure a good bearing on the entire surface of the bottom 
board. The drag should now be vented with one-eighth 
inch wire all around and over the pattern, using care 
not to strike the pattern so as to allow the metal to flow 
into the vent. The bottom board is placed onto the drag, 
with care that it bears on the sand at all points. The 















2*&5*3g? 



Fig. 4. 



two boards are clamped to the drag with short clamps, as 
; hown in Fig. 5. The flask is then turned over onto a bed 
of loose sand, so as to have an even bearing at both ends. 
The clamps are then removed and the board taken off, 
leaving the pattern at the top of the drag. The surface of 
1 he joint is made by tucking sand into any soft places that 
there may be, then riddle a little loose sand on the sur- 
face, and slick with a trowel so as to make it a little harder 
than the main body of the sand. Parting sand is dusted 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



over the surface of the joint until the entire surface is 
covered. That falling onto the pattern is brushed off. 



rp- 



_ _ — 



- 



sm 






~ 






Fig. 5. 

Since the flask is small and the cope has no bars, it may 
now be placed on and the gate stick set even with the 
centre of the pattern and midway between the flask and 
pattern, as shown in Fig. 6. This pattern having a rib 



w: : " 



IT 






, .-, 



Fig. 6. 



running lengthwise, the inflowing metal should enter the 
rib from an end and not over an edge. This will reduce 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



the liability of the metal cutting away the sand, causing a 
bunch on the casting. A little facing sand is riddled over 
the pattern, then the heap sand is riddled through a No. 4 
riddle to a depth of about one inch. Heap sand is filled 
in and rammed next to the flask with the pein, then the 
remainder is rammed to an even hardness. The cope is 
filled and rammed with the butt rammer and struck off 
similarly to the drag. It is vented over the pattern and 
around the gate stick with one-eighth inch vent wire. 





. .., 1 , , — r 



Fig. 7. 

The gate stick is loosened by rapping sidewise and 
withdrawn. The hole is reamed out, leaving a large 
opening to pour the iron into, as shown in Fig. 7. The 
cope is ready to be lifted off and placed on any convenient 
rest where it may be finished. The cope should always 
be finished before the drag is touched, for, if anything 
happened to necessitate shaking it out, the drag is ready 
to have the cope replaced for another ramming. The 
portion of the cope that covers the pattern should be 
slicked lightly with the trowel, then covered with plum- 



6 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

bago with a soft camel's hair brush, or by dusting from a 
sack and then slicking with a trowel. The gate should be 
reamed slightly to take off the loose edge and pressed to 
firmness with the fingers. The drag should be brushed 
off to remove the parting sand ; then wet the sand around 
the pattern slightly with the swab. If the sand is too wet 
at any point the metal will blow when poured, therefore 



^ 



l 



€ 



y 



h;:af 



> 




Fig. 8. 



care must be exercised in putting on only as much water 
as is necessary to make the sand stick together well. The 
pattern may now be drawn by driving the draw spike into 
the centre of the pattern, then rapping it until the sand is 
free from the edges of the pattern; then lift the pattern 
out by slowly raising it, as shown in Fig. 8. The mold is 
slicked over lightly and patched in case the pattern tears 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 7 

the sand at any place. The pouring gate is now con- 
nected to the mold by cutting a runner from the mold to 
the gate of a size that will admit the iron freely, but it 
must be smaller than the portion of the casting where it 
connects so that the runner may be broken off easily 
without damage to the casting. The runner should be 
smoothed with the fingers or a slicking tool to ensure 




Fig. 9. 



against loose sand being washed into the mold. The 
mold may now be dusted with plumbago and slicked, at 
which time the flask is ready to close. The flask should 
be clamped to provide against the cope being lifted by the 
metal and the metal flowing out at the joint when the mold 
is poured. In clamping a flask it must not be moved or 



8 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



jarred, as the sand hanging at the top is liable to drop. 
Nor should the cope and drag be drawn together with a 
great pressure, as the flask is liable to give, causing the 
sand to crush the mold at the joint. The best method 
of putting on the clamps is to have them stand nearly ver- 
tical and resting on a wedge at the top. The clamp may 
be tightened with a clamping iron by catching the point 
under the clamp and on the wedge, then moving the upper 
end toward the clamp, as indicated by the arrow in Fig 9. 
The mold is now ready to cast. 

The process of making a mold with a split, or divided 
pattern is shown by the small pulley in Fig. 10. The 




— <• — 
• . 



Fig. 10. 



half of the pattern without the dowel-pins is placed on 
the turn-over board and the drag placed on it as in the 
previous case. The facing sand is put on until the arms 
are covered, then heap sand is riddled through a No. 4 
riddle until the centre is filled to the top of the rim. Since 
the hub is deeper than the rim, there is liability of the 
sand crushing out when the mold is poured, as the hub 
fills to the height of the arms before the rim receives any 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 9 

iron. To prevent the sand from breaking and to hold it 
together more firmly, wooden soldiers are put into the 
sand between the rim and the hub. The soldiers are 
made of any small pieces of wood, only large enough to 
be stiff and of a length to reach beyond the pattern about 
the same distance as it is inserted into the pattern. They 
are wet with clay wash, or flour paste, to hold the sand 
to the soldier. They are placed to a depth of the arms 
about midway between the rim and hub, and between 
the arms, as shown in Fig. n. 

The pattern is now completely covered with riddled 
sand and the outside rammed as before. The sand within 




Fig. 11. 



the pattern is rammed with any small tool or iron rod that 
can be gotten in between the soldiers and the pattern. 
The remainder of the drag is filled in, rammed and 
vented. The flask may now be turned over and the joint 
slicked as before. The other half of the pattern is put 
on as shown in Fig. 12. Parting sand is put over the 
joint, then the cope is placed in position. Pulleys and 
sheaves are generally poured from the hub, in which case 
the gate stick must be placed above the hub. The facing 
sand is put on the arms and hub, and riddled sand filled 
in over the pattern. Soldiers may now be placed in the 



IO 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



same manner as in the drag, but their office in this place 
is more to hold the sand from falling away when the cope 
is lifted off or closed after removing the pattern. The 



. , , , , , 



Fig. 12. 



first ramming is the same as the drag, then the gate stick 
may be put in place and the ramming finished. The 
cope is vented, the pouring basin cut and the gate stick 
removed, giving the flask in form as shown in Fig. 13. 




Fig. 13. 

The cope is lifted off and placed on any convenient block- 
ing, as shown in Fig. 14. The pattern in the cope is 
brushed off and lightly swabbed with water. 

The pattern is rapped and removed by lightly jarring 
as it is drawn. The gate is reamed a little at the hub to 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



II 



remove loose sand, then the hub and arms are slicked and 
blackened with plumbago. The drag is prepared in the 
same manner, then the flask is ready to close and clamp 
for casting. 



1 



:' 



Sgygpij 




Fig. 14. 

Many patterns have rounded edges or have the point 
of parting located at different levels in various parts of 
the pattern. In these cases the parting on the drag must 
be shaped to allow the pattern to be withdrawn without 
destroying the shape or tearing up the sand. The upper 
portion of the pattern must be formed in the cope. This 
causes a portion of the sand to be hung in the cope below 
the level of the flask, or the sand is coped out to the pat- 
tern. In cases of coping out, a portion of the sand is 
lifted from the pattern when the cope is lifted off. This 
does not admit of rapping the pattern or otherwise loosen- 
ing the sand, therefore the sand must be well anchored 
so as to hold its form well and not require too much 
patching. 



12 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



The pattern of the half of an eccentric strap, shown 
in Fig. 15, may be taken as an example where coping out 
is necessary. The pattern can not be drawn sidewise, 
as the inner circle has a flange on each side. 

To cast this eccentric strap the pattern is placed in 
the drag with the inner circle toward the turn-over board, 
then facing is put on the pattern and the drag filled, 
rammed, vented, and turned over as in previous cases. 
The parting is now made even with the face of the drag at 




Fig. 15. 

each end up to the edge of the inner circle. The parting 
surface then follows the outer edge of the pattern and the 
sand is sloped outward on each side, as shown in Fig. 16. 
This slope must be so as to allow the sand to part freely 
at all points when the cope is lifted. The dry parting sand 
is then placed over the level portion of the drag, but it 
will not stay on the slope. A good way to part that por- 
tion of the mold is to coat the surface with a fine, new, 
sharp sand, dampened so it may be slicked on with a tool, 
or the fingers; then dust a dry parting sand over this. 

The cope for a pattern like this must have special bars 
following near to the shape of the pattern, as shown in 
Fig. 17. The bars must be dampened with clay wash or 
thin flour paste to make the sand stick to the bars. 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



J 3 



Facing is riddled onto the pattern and sand riddled 
over the drag to a depth of about one-half inch. The 
flask joint is then cleared and the cope is put in place. 
The gate stick is placed opposite the centre of one end, 
wh.le a riser is placed at the other. The offices of the 
riser are to allow the gases to escape from the mold, and 





Fig. 16. 

to furnish iron to feed the casting when shrinkage takes 
place. 

Gaggers are then set in the cope as shown in Fig 17, 
and are placed near enough together to anchor the sand 
firmly in the cope. The sharp edge coming inside of the 
flanges may be better anchored by placing nails with 
heads toward the pattern at intervals of about one to two 



14 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



inches. The nail heads should be clay-washed and set 
as soldiers. Sand is now riddled into the cope to a depth 



:= 



s> 




TT 



~g:f \mm^ p£| |ppv|^ 



^ 



m 



.c 



m 



3^ 



Fig. 17. 

of two or three inches, then the bars are tucked with the 
fingers to harden the sand under the bars, the same as the 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 1 5 

rammed portion between the bars. Sand is filled in to 
a depth of about six inches. The part enclosed between 
each set of bars is rammed separately, similarly to an 
individual cope, but using care to have all the divisions 
rammed to an even hardness. The remainder of the cope 
is then filled in and rammed, having about 6 to 8 in. of 
sand to a ramming, until the cope is entirely filled, when 
it is butted off and vented. In ramming, the operator must 
avoid striking the gaggers, as that drives them into the 
drag and then necessitates patching when the cope is 
lifted off. The cope may now be lifted off, using care to 
lift it slowly and evenly, in order that the sand may not be 
torn by striking at any point. The cope should be gone 
over with the hand to see if there are any soft spots, 
which, when found, should be filled to an even hardness 
with other parts. It is then patched where necessary and 
slicked to a smooth surface. The pattern is drawn from 
the drag after removing all the parting sand and swab- 
bing the sand at the edge of the pattern. The mold is 
slicked and the gate and riser connected to the mold by 
the runner. This gives the mold in the form as shown 
in Fig. 18. The mold may be blackened and closed, 
ready to be cast. 

Many patterns are of such form that they require a 
special follow-board or match in order to mold them by 
turning over. When there are not enough castings re- 
quired to pay to make a follow-board, other means must 
be resorted to. If these are of such form that they may 
be evenly rammed by bedding in, that method often saves 
much time. 

To mold by bedding in is to place the drag in the posi- 



i6 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



tion it is to have when the cope is put on, then ram the 
sand in until it is of such a height as to br.ng the parting 
of the pattern at the parting of the flask, and finish the 
ramming of the drag with the pattern in position. Many- 
forms of patterns easily admit of this method in that 
there are no parts that are not easily accessible for ram- 
ming the sand from the top side. Other patterns may be 
such that a molder may easily patch any soft spots that 
are under the pattern when finishing the mold. 




\ " ' ' ' " ' ! ^— 



Fig. 18. 



In some places the main portion of the molding is done 
by this method, but on the majority of patterns it is 
easier and quicker to prepare the drag by turning it over. 
In England, where iron flasks are used the main method 
used is that of bedding in due to the weight and to the 
difficulty in turning over the flask. 

The molder must use his discretion in deciding which 
method he should use, in order to save time and labor. 
Different men making a mold from the same pattern 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



17 



may be able to do the best and quickest work by using 
opposite methods, according as each is most accustomed. 
One type of casting that may best be made by bed- 
ding in may be illustrated by the making of a large plain 
plate by use of the frame shown in Fig. 19. The pat- 
tern is made in frame so as to be able easily to ram the 
sand which comes under it. The narrow frame may easily 
be tucked to the required hardness, while if a solid pat- 
tern be used an even hardness is much more difficult to 
obtain. 



S 



? P 



Fig. 19. 

In making the mold the drag is placed on the bottom 
board in the position to receive the cope. Sand is shov- 
eled in and rammed to a depth that will hold the top of 
the pattern nearly to a level of the parting of the flask. 
Sand is then riddled into the drag to a sufficient depth for 
putting the pattern in place and tucking the sand firmly 
under it The pattern is placed in position and forced to 
the level of the drag, then it may be held by placing a 
weight on it to avoid raising while tucking sand under it 
at the soft places. The remainder of the drag is rammed 
to the parting. The drag is well vented before making 
the parting, thus closing the top of the vents and forcing 



l8 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

the gases out at the bottom board. The cope is placed 
on, rammed, and lifted by observing the precautions 
previously given. 

In order to make a plate of the mold, the sand within 
the frame must be taken out to a depth equal to that of 
the pattern. In order to make this of even depth, a strike 
stick, as shown at A, Fig. 19, is used to strike out the sand. 
The pattern is then removed and the surface is slicked 
to an evenness, using care not to cause hard spots. The 
mold may now be blackened and runners cut, when it is 
ready to close. 

When a mold is made in the sand on the floor without 
a cope to cover it, it is called open sand molding. This 
is a cheap form of molding for some types of castings. 
The casting will not be clean or smooth, but may have 
its exact form all except the upper surface. 

This method may be used for making castings for parts 
of iron flasks, clamps, core irons, floor plates, or castings 
whose upper surface may be rough and where the exact 
thickness of metal is not important. 

Many of the precautions necessary to obtain a good 
casting from open sand work may be noted in the pro- 
cedure for making the flask bar shown in Fig. 20. The 
manner of making molds of this style varies, as is most 
convenient with the material the molder has at hand. 
The method given below is most flexible and may be used 
on a great variety of patterns. Particular cases may be 
handled in very different manner. 

The top surface of the pattern must be level in all direc- 
tions, for the metal when poured is a liquid which seeks 
its level. The metal lies on the sand with only the thick- 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



19 



ness of the casting. Since there is no head, as in gates 
and risers, to give a pressure, the sand must be open and 
well vented to give a free escape to the gases; or they will 
force through the iron and cause the sand to cut away, 
making a bunch on the casting, or leaving blow-holes 
through the iron. 

The pattern here shown has the lower face a plane ex- 
cept for the flanges at each end. We may therefore 
make a level bed and place the pattern onto it. To make 
the bed two straight pieces, preferably T-rails, are placed 
on the floor and leveled. One piece is placed down and 




Fig. 20. 



leveled with a spirit level, then the other is laid parallel 
with it at a distance that will give ample room to locate 
the pattern, with the pouring basin coming at the edge of 
the bed. This piece is made level with the first by use of a 
straight edge resting on each piece and the level on the 
upper parallel edge of the straight edge. Sand is filled in 
almost to the top of the pieces and rammed lightly to an 
even hardness. The remainder is filled with riddled sand 
and struck off, having pieces about § inch in thickness 
between the strike stick and the rails. To ram, the rails 
are cleared, then by holding the strike stick firmly on its 



20 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

edge on one rail and striking down with the other end 
until the sand is compressed to the level of the rails. This 
ensures even hardness. Unless the sand is very open, the 
bed should be well vented downward with cross vents, 
allowing the gas to escape to the sides. The bed is then 
struck off with a straight edge resting on the leveled 
pieces, thus giving an even and level bed. 

The pattern is then placed on the bed in the position 
most convenient for pouring. It may be driven down 
part the depth of the flange, then drawn out and the de- 
pression of the flanges cut with a trowel to soften the 
sand, to avoid its becoming too hard when the pattern is 
forced down to the bed. The pattern is replaced and 
forced down to a bearing on the bed. The edges may 
then be tucked a little to harden the sand on which the 
edges rest. Sand is filled in and tucked with the hands 
around the pattern until the sand is above its top. 
The top is struck off even with the pattern by any short 
straight edge, and the surface slicked with a trowel. 
The pouring basin may be built at the end by mak- 
ing a U-shaped mound of sand with the enclosed por- 
tion tapering down away from the edge of the pattern. 
The object of this depression is to hold some metal on 
which the inflowing metal strikes instead of on the 
sand. 

The pattern may be removed from the mold after swab- 
bing the edge and rapping to free the sand. The bottom 
is slicked smooth with the trowel, care being used not to 
make hard spots. The flange may be patched to proper 
shape whenever necessary, then the mold is ready to re- 
ceive the metal. 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 21 

In the case of coring holes through the plate, the prints 
may be on the lower side of the pattern when placed on 
the bed. The cores near to the entering metal should be 
supported by nails to avoid washing out by the flow of the 
metal. It is a good plan to put a few nails at the edge 
next to the basin to prevent its breaking in when poured. 

Many castings require dry sand cores for making holes 
and openings in the castings that are solid in the pattern. 
In these cases the pattern has a print which locates the 
core and holds it in position in the mold. The core must 
be vented off in the mold to allow the gases to escape 
freely. It must be properly anchored by bearing on the 
sand or by chaplets to prevent its floating when the iron 
surrounds it in pouring. 

Some of the principles involved in setting cores are 
illustrated in making the casting shown in Fig. 21. This 
is the casing for a theadstock whose body part is hollow 
and having the bearings cored for babbit. 

The pattern used is shown in Fig. 22. This is a one- 
part pattern having loose pieces for the projecting parts. 
In this case the loose pieces are held in place by a dove- 
tail. Usually loose pieces are pinned onto the pattern. 
In cases where loose pieces are pinned on, the sand is 
rammed around the loose piece, then the pin is drawn, 
leaving it free from the pattern when it is withdrawn from 
the mold. 

The drag and cope are rammed in the usual manner of 
a common mold. When the pattern is drawn from the 
drag, the loose pieces remain in position in the sand, as 
at A, Fig. 23. The mold should be patched and finished 
before drawing the loose pieces. The edge of the large 



22 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 






Fig. 21. 




1 


til 


r \ 


ffil 











— 


n 


n 







ri 






n 


n 


— 


1 



Fig. 22, 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



23 



pieces should be nailed with short nails to prevent tearing 
or dropping when the piece is removed. The nails should 
be slanted away from the pattern and pressed in so the 
head comes even with the surface. The loose piece is 
then loosened from the sand by rapping, and drawn into 
the mold, as at B, Fig. 23. These new parts are then 
finished and the mold may be blackened all over. 

The cores are placed into the mold after the manner 
shown in Fig. 24. The cores are vented off at the bottom 




Fig. 23. 



by running a vent wire down from the print, then insert- 
ing another wire on the bottom board to strike the former. 
Several vents must be made in this manner to ensure free 
escape of the gases. This being a compound core, those 
at the bottom must be set first. The small bearing cores 
go into the opening left by the print on the loose pieces A 
and B, Fig. 23. The main core has a bearing on each of 
these cores and is held in place by the side of the mold 
which was formed by the main print of the pattern. 



24 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



The upper vents of the core should be closed with sand 
or flour to prevent the metal flowing into the vent if it 
should get above the core. The print in the cope holds 
the upper side of the core in position, thus preventing the 
liability of moving sidewise when the mold is cast. The 
mold may be closed when the gates and runners are 
properly cut. 

Many patterns are of such form that they can not be 
drawn from a two-part flask, in which case an intermedi 




Fig. 24. 



ate portion called a cheek is required. This branch of 
molding is generally known as three-part work. The 
flask used and the methods of procedure are dependent 
upon the pattern. These are greatly varied. 

To illustrate one of the general forms using a "plain 
cheek," we have taken for an example the piston spider 
for a Corliss engine, shown in Fig. 25. The pattern, as 
shown in Fig. 26, is in two parts. The main or body con- 
sists of the outside ring as shown in the figure. The 
other portion consists of the centre hub with web con- 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



25 



necting it to the ring. The bosses in the pockets are 
loose and pinned onto the body portion of the pattern. 




Fig. 25. 






n 



Fig. 26. 



To ensure a firm, clean casting, it is advisable in this 
case to run some metal through the mold after it is filled. 



26 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

The mold is poured from the bottom, thus providing a 
skim gate and allowing the metal to rise in the mold with- 
out flowing across the overhanging portion of the cheek. 

To form the mold, the pattern is placed on the follow- 
board with all the parts in place. Facing sand is put into 
the pockets to a depth of about 2 in. Long rods are 
placed in the pockets to securely anchor them in the cope. 
Fill in about 2 in. more of facing and ram lightly with a 
rod or stick, using care to avoid making the sand too hard. 
The remainder of the pocket is filled and rammed. The 
pins may be removed from the bosses. The pockets 
should now be thoroughly vented, using a needle wire 
smaller than T V in. in diameter. 

The cheek may be placed on the follow-board about 
the pattern. The gate stick is placed in its position out- 
side of the pattern. The cheek is now rammed and the 
parting made at the upper edge of the ring. The cope 
may be placed upon the cheek. The pouring gate from 
the cheek extends through the cope, and a flow-off gate is 
placed on the centre hub beside the centre core. The cope 
is rammed, ensuring proper anchorage for the rods from 
the pockets. It should be well vented, especially above 
the pockets. The gate sticks are then removed. A 
bottom board is placed upon the cope, the flask firmly 
clamped together, and the whole turned over. The fol- 
low-board is removed and the lower parting made on the 
cheek. 

The core print is placed on the pattern. The drag is 
rammed, having proper anchorage for lifting it off. After 
venting the drag is lifted off and placed on a bottom 
board bedded for receiving the flask. The drag is slicked 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 27 

and finished. The surface directly in front of the gate 
is nailed to prevent the iron from cutting away the 
sand. 

The body portion of the pattern is drawn from the 
flask. The top of the cheek is finished and the runner 
cut to connect with the pouring gate. The cheek is lifted 
off and completely finished and blackened, then placed 
in its position on the drag. Before removing the second 
portion of the pattern from the cope, the edges of the 
pockets should be well nailed to better anchor the sand. 
The pattern may now be drawn and the cope finished and 
blackened. After setting the centre core, the flask may 
be closed. The gate sticks are replaced in their respec- 
tive positions, in order to form the overflow runner and 
the pouring basin, which must be higher than the flow-off 
gate. To prevent closing the vents in the cope, when the 
flow-off gate is made, the surface is covered with paper, 
hay, or any convenient material. The gate is made 
with a runner to conduct the overflow from the flask. 
After clamping it is ready to receive the metal. 

In some cases it is found that dirt accumulates in the 
flange directly above the gate where the metal enters. It 
acts as a whirl or retaining point that is not forced to cir- 
culate as the metal is flowing into the mold. To avoid 
this, it is advisable to put a top gate on the opposite side 
of the centre core from the flow-off gate. 

Many forms of patterns requiring three-part flasks are 
such that the " cheek can not be lifted." In such cases 
the lower portion of the pattern is drawn and that part of 
the mold finished before the drag and cheek are rolled 
over. 



28 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



c~ 



The lathe bed casting shown in Fig. 27 gives a good 

example of this class of work. The pattern has the two 

upper rails loose with the fillets attached forming the 

guides to hold them in place. 

= r ^ rr This casting may best be gated so as to allow 

the metal to enter at both top and bottom 

rails, thus reducing the liability of the metal 

cutting, from too great a flow at the bottom or 

by falling from the top of the mold. 

The cheek is placed on the follow-board and 
the pattern placed with the cope side down, 
in which case the loose rails come on the 
: upper side. The gate stick is placed in posi- 
tion so that runners may be cut to the lower 
rails. The pattern is then faced on the out- 
side and rammed in the usual manner. The 
inner portion will be a green sand core which 
is separate from the flask and has bearing at 
top and bottom. In the centre of each should 
be placed a vent rod to give an opening for 
carrying off the gases. The sand is filled in 
and rammed to a depth of about four inches. 
Rods are now laid in diagonally to bind the 
sand together. Use facing next to the pattern 
and riddled sand for the remainder. Each succeeding 
ramming of from 2 to 4 in. should be well rodded laying 
them in different directions each time. When the cross 
webs of the pattern are covered, it is best to place two 
or three long rods in to bind the whole core together. 

When the cheek is finished the parting is made even 
with the top of the pattern. The face of this parting 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 29 

should be harder than in the previous cases, because the 
pressure head of the metal is very great as this comes 
at the bottom of the mold. A good method of getting 
this parting of even hardness is to riddle some sand onto 
the surface to a depth of about 2 in., then butt in firmly 
but not hard. 

Strike it off with a stick, then slick with a trowel after 
riddling on a little sand over the entire surface. The 
gate stick should come to this surface but not extend 
beyond. Parting sand is put on and the drag rammed, 
vented and lifted off. 

The cheek should be well vented on the outside of the 
pattern and under the rail that is about to be drawn. 
These vents should be led off to the parting of the flask. 
The centre portion should have vent gutters cut around 
within about 2 in. of the pattern and leading to the centre 
vent rod of each of the cores. The vents are all made to 
extend from this gutter. The wire should be J or T \ in. 
in diameter. Vent particularly under the rails and 
around the centre web. 

The parts of the pattern are drawn. The edges of the 
fillets near the web or the part of the pattern still remain- 
ing in the mold should be nailed, using tenpenny nails and 
placing them about 2 in. apart. The mold is then slicked, 
blackened, and gates cut from the rails to the gate stick. 
The drag is then closed onto the cheek. Sand should be 
thrown onto the top and struck off evenly. This may be 
easily accomplished by using a straight edge with a gagger 
or strip of wood under it and bearing on the flask. The 
bottom board is placed on and rubbed to good bearing, 
then the flask is clamped together firmly and turned over, 



30 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

using care not to strain the mold. The follow-board is 
removed and the upper parting made on the cheek. 

The cope is then rammed, having a riser opposite the 
gate and the vent rods drawn up to give opening through 
the cope. This is lifted off and finished in the usual 
manner. The cheek is vented under the rails on the out- 
side of the pattern and the vents led off to the parting. 
In venting, do not endanger forcing the wire into the 
lower part of the mold where the pattern has been re- 
moved. In the centre portion, vent gutters should be cut 
around each core and led to the centre vent; then vent the 
core to lead to these gutters. The pattern may now be 
drawn and the mold slicked and blackened. Runners 
are cut to connect the rails to the main gate. The cope 
may be closed, the pouring basin made, and the riser 
built to the same height. 

In this mold there is a depth of metal which causes a 
pressure against the side. This must be provided for in 
clamping the mold. A tie clamp may be placed over the 
flask, having the parallel ends long enough to reach to the 
bottom of the cheek. Wedges are placed between the 
clamp and the flask, and forced to a firm bearing, but 
must not spring the flask. These may be driven in hard 
enough by striking with a hammer handle. In these 
cases, be very careful not to put great pressure at the 
sides, for the flask will be forced together, making the 
metal of the web too thin or causing the cheek to cut 
through the core. 

In making many castings much time may be saved by 
making "three-part work in two-part flasks." This may 
be accomplished by using a cover core over the bottom 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



31 



division of the mold when that is a plane surface. In 
other cases the cheek portion may be made in the sand 
alone. This latter form may be shown by the sheave- 




Fig. 28. 



c 



wheel made from the pattern shown in Fig. 28. There 
are two other methods of making this, and the method 




Fig. 29. 

chosen depends mainly upon the size of the wheel to be 
made. Fig. 29 represents a three-part flask with the 
cheek so it may be lifted. Fig. 30 is a two-part flask 



3 2 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



having the third or cheek made in core. After the pat- 
tern is drawn out, cores of the form shown at A are set in 
the place of the print on the pattern. This method is of 
great convenience when there are two or more grooves in 
place of the single groove here represented. 

The pattern is made in halves, as shown in Fig. 28. The 





W^i£f 




nn — 



Fig. 30. 



process of molding would be to ram the cope as usual 
with the pattern in the centre of the flask, as shown in 
Fig. 31, having the gate stick placed on the hub. The flask 
is turned over and the parting made to slope down to the 
parting line of the pattern, as shown in Fig. 32. The 
other half of the pattern is put in place and weighted so as 
to ensure its remaining in place while the cheek is made. 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



33 



The cheek is made by tucking in about the pattern until 
filled, so as to make the upper parting as shown in Fig. 33. 



r rr^>?7oT>\^ 



Yi' i>V- : 



i@i!ll) 



Ig pitr 



[f~ 



2 



1 , , , , , .4 



Fig. 31. 

The drag may now be put in place and rammed. It must 
be sufficiently anchored to allow lifting off. 



LI ' ivyyiV.^ / ' V ' ^. ; y1 i 1 " 



.'l..\, .;.'■' 1 






Fig. 32. 

The drag is then lifted off and that half of the pattern 
drawn and the mold slicked and finished, as shown in 




Fig. 33. 

Fig. 34. The drag is replaced and the bottom board 
given a firm bearing by use of loose sand on the flask, 



34 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



then turned over carefully onto the bed where it is to re- 
main. The cope is now lifted and the remainder of the 
pattern drawn and the mold finished. In lifting a part 
of the flask where the pattern is lifted with it, a draw spike, 
or wood screw, should be put into the pattern and held 
when the flask is lifted. The centre core is set, then the 
mold may be closed. A pouring basin should be built 
on the runner so that the iron may strike in the basin in- 




Fig. 34. 

stead of directly into the gate. This breaks the fall of 
the iron from the ladle and relieves the straining pressure 
on the mold, besides acting as a skim gate when the basin 
is kept full. The dirt and slag float on top, while the 
clean metal enters the mold from the bottom of the basin. 
This gives the mold as shown in Fig. 35. 

The use of cores for covering part of the mold instead 
of a third part to the flask is found to be of great advan- 
tage when making large base-plates for columns. Fig. 36 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



35 




Fig. 35. 




h-B 




Fig. 36. 



36 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

shows a base-plate casting which may be made by use of 
cover cores. 

The pattern for this casting has the top and bottom 
pieces doweled to the centre piece and the ribs, while the 
ribs are also separate from one another. The pattern in 
its complete form is placed on the follow-board in the 
drag. The bottoms of the pockets are faced and filled 
with sand to a depth of about 3 in. This is rammed 
lightly, then long rods are laid in horizontally, extending 
out to the flask. Two rods should be placed in near the 
corner of each pocket and slanting upward to just allow 
room for the cores to be placed on the top without strik- 
ing the rods. These rods should not strike the pattern. 
The buoyancy of the metal, acting on the bottom of the 
sand which forms the pocket, is held by these rods placed 
in the sand. This buoyancy, or lifting force, acts on the 
surface exposed by the lower plate proportionally to the 
area exposed and the height of the pressure head. About 
3 or 4 in. of sand is filled into the pockets and rammed 
about the rods with a small rammer, care being used to 
have the rods firmly rammed into place and not sprung 
so as to tear the mold when the pattern is drawn. The 
sand should be well vented in the pockets and a coke bed 
for collecting the gases laid into the pockets and leading 
to the flask where the gases may escape. The coke bed 
is covered with sand to a depth for ramming, then a 
number of rods should be laid in horizontally as before. 

Much time may be saved in molding if cores are made 
to fit the pockets next to the top plate and of a thickness 
of about 2 in. These cores should extend out to a dis- 
tance of 3 in. beyond the plate B. This prevents the 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



37 



green sand from breaking when turned over. The sand 
below the cores should be well vented to the coke bed 
and have a firm, even bearing all over. When no cores 
are used, rods should be laid in near to the plate and the 
sand well rammed and vented to the coke bed. After re- 
moving the plate the edges should be well nailed before 
replacing the cover core. 

The flask is now filled to the plate B. This is left in 
place and sand rammed in and a surface made even with 
the top of pattern. When a special cover core is used, 
it should be put in place determined by the centre print 
and the edges marked in the sand and guide rods placed 
at the corners to ensure replacing to the proper position. 
The core is now lifted, the pattern drawn and the mold 
finished in this portion. The cover core is replaced and 
the remainder of the drag filled, rammed, and vented, 
ready to turn over. 

When no special cover core is provided, an extra piece 
may be made for the pattern coming to the edges marked 
C in the figure. This may be drawn from the other side 
of the mold. In this case, after the surface is made even 
with the top of the pattern, the plate B is drawn and this 
piece is placed on the pattern with the centre print. 
Stock slab cores may be used to cover the mold in the 
place of the cover core. 

The drag is turned over, the parting made, and the 
cope rammed, having a gate at the centre of one side and 
a riser at another side. The large plate A is drawn first 
and the faces of the pockets finished. The front corners 
should be nailed with large nails and a few placed along 
the sides to prevent the sand from cutting, cracking off, 



38 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

or scabbing when the mold is poured. The ribs may be 
drawn separately and the centre square last. The gate 
should be cut opposite the ribs, thus reducing to a mini- 
mum the liability of cutting. 

When the bottoms of the pockets overhang quite a dis- 
tance, it is advisable to put double-end chaplets between 
the core at the bottom of the pocket and the cover core. 
This takes the weight of the core and prevents it from 
sagging when the flask is turned over. The lifting pres- 
sure may be greater than will be held by the rods that are 
placed in the pockets. In this case, a plate of thin cast 
iron may be placed on the top of the pocket and a chaplet 
run through the cope to bear on this plate. The chaplet 
should be wedged only tight enough to prevent giving, but 
not so as to endanger cracking the green sand. Another 
manner of chapleting these pockets is to use a double- 
end chaplet with plates on both sides or very large heads. 
The chaplets should be such that the distance between 
the two outer faces exactly equals the thickness of the 
plate A. The plates on the chaplets are necessary since 
they bear on green sand, and small heads would cut 
through without offering much resistance. 

Pulleys having a face of any desired width may be 
made by use of a pattern ring which is drawn up in mold- 
ing to the width desired. The pattern consists of a pat- 
tern ring, as shown in Fig. 37, the arms with the desired 
hubs, and the core prints. Making the hub separate 
from the arms allows putting any sized hub desired onto 
the one set of arms. 

The mold is made by the method of bedding in. The 
drag is placed on the bottom board and rammed with 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



39 



sand nearly to the height that the pattern ring should 
be placed. Riddled sand is put in to a height such that 
the ring will bed into it. The ring is then bedded down 
to such a distance that the width of the ring plus the dis- 






Fig. 37. 

tance A, Fig. 38, will equal the desired width of face plus 
the finish on the pulley. The sand is then rammed 
around the ring nearly to its top. This should be well 









^ i 



Fig. 38. 

vented all over before drawing up. The ring is then 
drawn up about 2 in. by placing blocks at three or four 
points about the rim and extending above the ring an 
even height on each one. This keeps the ring even when 



40 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



drawn to a level of the blocks each time. In ramming, 
the sand must not be too hard about the ring or the iron 
will not run the rim full. Usually direct the rammer 
slightly away from the ring rather than toward it. 

The arms should be positioned when the ring has been 
drawn to half the width of the face of the required pulley. 
The arms are bedded in and the parting made from the 
centre line of the arms having the sand between them 
come to a level of their top, giving the flask as shown in 



L 



- 



—Ck- 



1 • 1 

__ . — _ — . 












Fig. 39. 



Fig. 39. This is to prevent having a heavy body of 
sand hanging below the anchor. 

Sand is riddled over the parting and the anchor placed 
in position. The anchor, as shown in Fig. 40, has the 
three nuts for the screw eyes which are for lifting the 
anchor. These screw eyes are left in place until after the 
cheek is rammed, then they are removed and the holes 
covered for ramming the cope. The outer circle of the 
anchor must be smaller than the inside of the ring to allow 
for the contraction of the rim when cooling. Pieces should 
be put in to guide the anchor back to the same position 
after removing from the mold. These may be short cones 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



41 



or square pryamids. They are placed in two or three 
places between the arms and extending below the parting. 
They are fastened so as to ensure remaining firm in the 
anchor. These pieces are often called pulley feet. Around 
the edges of the anchor nails should be placed to extend 
nearly to the pattern and firmly anchor the sand about the 
edges and the arms. The remainder is filled in, rammed, 
and the pattern drawn until the parting is reached at the 







Fig. 40. 



top of the drag. Two small gate sticks are placed on the 
hub for admitting the metal. The flask is ready for form- 
ing the parting, as shown in Fig. 41, and for placing on the 
cope for ramming. 

The cope is rammed, having the two centre gates, a 
riser on the rim, and a vent opening from the cheek. The 
cope is lifted and finished. 

The vent gutter is cut around the outside of the cheek 
within about 2 in. of the ring and connecting with the vent 



42 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



opening in the cope. Slant vents lead to the gutter from 
all parts of the cheek. The outside is vented and led to 
the parting of the flask. In venting the wire must not be 
forced deeper than the pattern ring, because it would 
break away the face of the mold. The pattern ring is 
drawn out and the screw eyes are replaced into the anchor 
and the cheek lifted out. The arms may then be drawn, 
giving the mold in parts, as shown in Fig. 42. These may 
be finished and replaced, then the mold closed. 




Fig. 41. 



A pouring basin should be built to allow pouring from 
the outside of the flask. The riser should be built to 
the height of the basin to avoid overflowing onto the 
flask. 

The methods above given may be used for many forms 
of pulleys and sheave-wheels. Double-arm pulleys may 
be made in this manner by using a second anchor to lift 
the cheek from the lower set of arms. The thickness of 
the rim may be increased by placing thin strips inside 
of the ring. In pulleys having wide face it is best to 
anchor the sand in the outside of the flask so that it may 
be lifted off. The face of the pulley, the inside of the 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



43 



rim, and the bottom of the rim may be finished easily 
when thus removed. 

For making sheave-wheels by use of the pulley ring 
the grooves are made in core. Sheaves having from i to 



en 



n 






73 







m 



: m^mmMM 



V 



V 




Fig. 42. 



3 grooves are made without using an anchor lift, by 
coping out the sand above the arms by a cope lift. 
In making a sheave, the method of procedure is the 
same as that of a pulley until the cope is lifted off. The 



44 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

sand on the outside of the pulley ring is then removed 
to a depth equal to the width of the cores which form 
the grooves. The centre part is finished as in the case 
of the pulleys. The cores are set about the cheek by 
use of strips which are the thickness of the metal below 
the grooves. The sand is filled in back of the cores, thus 
forming the outer face for the desired sheave. The 
strips are drawn out and the mold prepared for closing. 

Columns are cast with centre cores of such a size that 
the thickness of metal on the outside is that desired. 
Fig. 43 shows a column that is here taken to explain 
some of the methods for making such forms of castings. 

The pattern used is shown in Fig. 44. It is a halved 
pattern longer than the desired casting and having the 
brackets loose. The drag is rammed in the customary 
manner. Facing is used all over the pattern when the 
length and thickness of metal will allow without cold- 
shotting the end away from the gate. The ramming must 
be even throughout its length, and is best made much 
harder than on smaller castings. The parting is made 
and the other half of the pattern is placed in position. 
Facing should be put on, the same as in the drag. It 
should be tucked beside the pattern to allow the gaggers 
to be placed near the pattern. The cope is then placed 
on and an upset placed over the brackets to give sufficient 
depth of sand above the pattern. The gaggers are set in 
the cope. They should be long enough to reach nearly to 
the top of the flask and have a heel about 6 in. long. The 
gaggers will be most effective when placed in the division 
having the heel extending parallel to the pattern and as 
close as possible to the pattern. When pointed toward 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 



45 



' \Cb 


(O) 


A 1 


o- ----- -o- 








r __ 


< 









^ 




— > 




> 






u 




(r 


1 


1° -- 


Jj 

-' o 



Fig. 43- 




Fig. 44. 



46 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

the pattern the edge is liable to break between the gaggers. 
It is only necessary to ram the cope one bar back of the 
collar. The gate is placed in this division and above the 
pattern. A riser should be placed above the large bracket. 
When the column has metal so thin that the iron is liable 
to be too cold when it reaches the bracket, it is preferable 
to have a gate at that end and pour with a bull ladle, thus 
supplying hot iron for the brackets. The cope should be 
rammed to an even hardness the same as that of the drag 
and should be well vented. The bracket must be anchored 
as strongly as possible, having a gagger come between 
the bracket and the beam connection to prevent the 
metal from breaking through. The ramming around the 
bracket should be lighter than on the main body of the 
pattern. The pressure of the metal is not sufficient to 
prevent scabbing or blowing as in the other parts. The 
pattern should be held firmly to the cope by wood screws 
while the cope is being lifted off. 

In finishing the drag, it should first be vented by run- 
ning the wire under the pattern from the sides of the flask 
and leading these vents off at the parting. Nails should 
be put in the corners near the collars and the brackets. 
The joint may be wet with the swab, then the pattern 
drawn. The brackets still remain in the drag. A large 
nail should be placed in each corner of the bracket and 
two placed between the bracket and beam connection to 
prevent breaking through, as the metal fills one before 
entering the other. The brackets are drawn and the mold 
slicked. The cores shown at B, Fig. 45, are set in the 
collars and those at A are placed in the beam connections. 
These cores must be anchored to prevent lifting, due to the 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 47 

buoyancy of the metal. These cores may be held by nails 
so placed as to resist an upward pressure. The end stop- 
off core shown at C is placed at the outer edge of the collars. 
This core is the same thickness as the metal of the desired 
column. The chaplets are set in the drag. The number 
of chaplets depends upon the weight and length of the 
centre core. The centre core is placed in position and the 
end stop-off cores are placed on the top side. These small 
cores should be fastened so that they will not be pressed 
forward while ramming up the ends or be washed in by the 
iron. The gate comes through the end stop-off, hence it 





must be cut away back to where the metal enters from the 
cope and of a width to give the desired area of gate. 

The cope should be finished similarly to the drag and 
the small cores set in the collars and the beam connection. 
The edges should be more firmly anchored than in the 
drag, so as to ensure holding when the flask is closed. 

The cope chaplets are set and the flask may be closed. 

In this form there is nothing to hold the metal from 
forcing the end cores out, hence there should be a division 
of the flask which may now be rammed with sand. The 
vents for the centre cores must be led off through the por- 
tion thus rammed. 



48 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

The pouring basin may be built and the riser raised to 
the level with it. The flask is clamped and chaplets prop- 
erly wedged, thus it is ready to receive the metal. 

The strength of facing and the amount which may be 
used is entirely dependent upon the thickness of the metal 
and the length of the column. Generally, when the metal 
is i in. in thickness, facing of a strength of from i-io to 
i- 1 6 should be used all over the pattern. Small columns 
up to 9 in. in diameter having metal less than i in. in thick- 
ness should not be covered all over with facing except 
when short. 

A column of 9-in. diameter and f-in. metal, 18 ft. long 
may be made with facing 1-16 covering one-half its 
length. With facing stronger or covering more of the pat- 
tern, the iron is so cold before reaching the opposite end 
that it causes cold-shots, or it will not run full. 

The manner of gating a column is dependent upon the 
size of the column. For small and thin columns, a single 
gate at the end supplies the metal fast enough and enables 
forcing in case the metal is somewhat cold. In larger 
sizes, as from 10 in. up, or 9 in. having thick metal, a gate 
on each side is more desirable. The metal may be led in 
by the end core or at the side by a runner and several gates. 

In making cast gears, it is very important to maintain 
the exact form of the pattern and form all the teeth per- 
fectly. The teeth are the most important part of such a 
casting, for if some are out of shape it will not run with the 
gear meshing into it, hence the casting cannot be used. 

The sand must be rammed into the teeth uniformly, and 
that as soft as will resist the pressure of the metal. In 
small gears it can be done best by riddling the sand out- 






GREEN SAND MOLDING 



49 



side and throwing it into the teeth until all are covered, 
then ramming up the backing moderately hard. In large 
gears the sand should be nailed or rodded while being 
rammed and care should be used to ram the teeth to an 
even hardness. 

When a gear is so small that facing cannot be used, mix 
new sand with the old in a proportion of i part new sand to 
3 parts old sand and use it for the facing. In all other 
gears use facing varying in strength according to size. 
Generally use facing of strength of i part sea coal to 12 
parts sand. Never use plumbago or blacking on the teeth 
unless they are of large enough size to smooth it on with a 
brush or slick. The loose dust only roughens the casting 
and causes a dirty, uneven surface. 

The teeth of a gear cannot be patched with tools as can 
corners and surfaces of a common mold. The form of the 
tooth must be true, hence it is important that the pattern 
draw out well, leaving the teeth without tearing. Some 
patterns have the teeth dovetailed into the body, then if 
any tooth does not leave the mold well it may be pressed 
down and drawn out separately. With other patterns, in 
case of patching being necessary, the pattern must be re- 
placed and the tooth re-formed. 

The gate must always be placed upon the centre of a 
gear, as the teeth would be very liable to wash if the metal 
entered the mold from the rim. 

The method of procedure in making a gear from a solid 
pattern may be shown in making a mold for the bevel gear 
shown in Fig. 46. The parting comes at the top or outer 
diameter of the teeth and at the bottom of the hub at the 
short side of the arms. If a special follow-board or match 



5° 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



is made for the pattern, the drag may be placed and 
rammed. In other cases, a match must be made on the 
cope. The cope is laid on a sand bed with the pins up- 
ward. Sand is filled in and rammed to a height that 
brings the parting line of the teeth even with that of the 
flask when the pattern is in position. The sand is rammed 
around the pattern until the level of the parting is reached. 
The parting between the arms is more easily made from 
this side than after the pattern is reversed; so this portion 






Fig. 46. 



of the parting is made and parting sand put upon it. The 
drag is placed upon the cope, facing sand is thrown into the 
teeth until they are well covered, sand is riddled over this, 
and the remainder is filled and rammed. The drag is 
vented, care being used not to strike the teeth of the pat- 
tern. The whole is turned over and the cope lifted while 
the pattern is held into the drag. The parting at the out- 
side of the pattern is first made and the sand removed from 
the centre down to the pattern. The pattern and ad- 
jacent sand are marked at some point by which to replace 



GREEN SAND MOLDING 5 1 

the pattern after it has been removed. The pattern is 
rapped to loosen the sand in the teeth, then drawn, carry- 
ing with it the sand above the parting previously made. 
The pattern is brushed clean and replaced, which com- 
pletes the parting of the drag. Facing is riddled over the 
face of the drag and the cope is replaced. Soldiers are 
placed to anchor the sand between the arms. These 
should extend to the top of the cope to ensure sufficient 
strength to hold the sand firmly when the pattern has been 
removed. The gate stick is placed on the hub beside the 
core print. Facing is filled in to cover the pattern and 
rammed between the arms with a hand rammer or rod that 
will tighten the sand evenly around the soldiers. The re- 
mainder of the cope is filled and rammed, care being used 
to ram around the soldiers without striking them. The 
cope is well vented and the gate stick removed without 
reaming or enlarging the hole, so that it may be replaced 
after the flask is closed. A wood screw or draw-spike is 
placed in the hub through the gate. This is held and 
slightly rapped as the cope is lifted off. The rapping frees 
the teeth and the pattern is held firmly in the cope by lift- 
ing on the screw. The sand around the pattern and be- 
tween the arms is patched and nailed where necessary. In 
large patterns the sand should be nailed before drawing 
the pattern, to prevent the sand from loosening or drop- 
ping while closing the mold. The sand at the edges of the 
pattern is moistened with the swab and the pattern drawn. 
In case any of the teeth were torn or damaged when the 
cope was lifted, the pattern should be replaced on the drag 
and the tooth re-formed by ramming in sand with a small 
rod or nail. The pattern, then drawn, should give a per- 



52 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

feet set of teeth as desired. Blacking may be put upon the 
cope and slicked, but it is preferable to leave the drag with- 
out blackening. The centre core is vented off at the 
bottom and has its top vent closed with sand so the iron 
cannot flow into it. The flask is closed and the gate stick 
replaced. A basin is built about it, as shown in Fig. 35, 
so that the metal will not be poured directly into the gate, 
giving the additional strain due to the metal dropping from 
the ladle. 



CHAPTER II 

DRY SAND MOLDING 

Dry sand molds are made similarly to green sand 
mold, using special facings. The mold is blackened with 
a wet blacking and slicked smooth, then dried in an oven 
or by special drying apparatus. The surface after drying 
is hard, similar to a brick. This gives a surface that can 
withstand great pressures where a high head is necessary 
in casting. The dry face coated with the blacking pre- 
vents fusion of the sand and thus gives a smooth casting. 
Hence where it is desirable to have a smooth casting, or 
when the head pressure is great; dry sand or loam molds 
are used. 

The mixture used next to the pattern in dry sand work 
is called the dry sand facing. That used to fill in between 
the facing and the flask is called the backing sand. Old 
molding sand forms a good backing. Dry sand facing 
comprises a mixture which will become hard and strong 
when dried and still be open to allow free escape of the 
gases. The mixture for the dry sand facing is dependent 
upon the sand obtainable in the locality. A sand too 
strong with clay gives the hard, strong face to the mold but 
will not allow the gases to escape. Where the molding 
sand is of a fine quality and quite strong with clay, Re- 
ceipts Nos. i and 2 will make a good facing. The propor- 

53 



54 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

tion of sharp or lake sand may be varied where the facing 

is found to be too close or too open. 

Receipt No. i. Mix i part new molding sand, i part old 

molding sand, and 2 parts sharp or core sand. To 30 

parts of sand add 1 part flour and 1 part sea coal. Wet 

with water. 
Receipt No. 2. Mix 4 parts of molding sand with 1 part 

sharp or lake sand. To 30 parts of sand add 1 part of 

flour. Wet with clay wash. 
Receipt No. 3. Mix 1 part of molding sand with 1 part of 

bank sand. To 30 parts of sand add i\ parts of sea 

coal and 1 part of flour. Wet with clay wash. 

Dry sand may be rammed much harder than green sand. 
The facings are more open and the moisture is evaporated 
from it before casting. The ramming should be even, 
because unevenness may cause trouble similar to green 
sand though not so readily. Hard spots in the face of a 
dry sand mold will cause a scab on the casting. 

The importance of venting dry sand must not be under- 
estimated. After the mold is dried there is no moisture to 
form steam, as in the green sand mold. The other gases 
are still formed at the face of the casting and must be car- 
ried away or the casting is liable to blow or scab. When 
there is six inches, or more, of sand between the casting 
and the flask no venting is necessary. When less than 
six inches there is not sufficient space to relieve the 
pressure unless there are holes in the flask for release or 
vents for carrying off the gases. 

As the body of sand increases, the pressure of the gases 
decreases, hence the smaller the body of sand the greater 
the necessity of vents. Large bodies of sand give relief to 



DRY SAND MOLDING 55 

the pressure through its openings or porosity. It literally 
holds the gases without increasing the pressure to a danger- 
ous degree. Pockets, corners, flanges, and similar projec- 
tions require venting and provision for conducting off the 
gases, but not so extensive as in green sand molds. 

In green sand, when the joint comes together closely, it 
may compress slightly without damage when the flask is 
clamped. In dry sand, the hard surface will not admit of 
any compression without breaking away. This is avoided 
by cutting away the joint slightly at the edge of the pattern 
before or after drawing. This leaves a fin on the casting 
which may be chipped off. The edges where cores bear 
should be similarly treated. This fin should be from •§- in. 
to I in. in thickness and should slope back about 3 in. 
The maxim " It is better to have a fin than a crush " should 
be remembered in dry sand work. 

The finishing of dry sand molds gives the face which 
causes the casting to peel. After the pattern is removed 
the face of the mold is dampened with molasses water or 
beer wash. This makes the facing stick together firmly 
and gives a smooth compact surface when slicked. The 
flour in the facing makes it rather pasty so it can be shaped 
more easily than a green sand mold. The entire face is 
slicked with the tools before blackening. Any part torn by 
the pattern may be patched similarly to a green sand mold. 
The face of the mold may be slicked much harder than in a 
green sand mold. The sand is much more open and held 
together by the flour so it will not scab so easily as green 
sand. 

The blacking is put upon the dry sand mold to close the 
pores of the sand and give a smooth surface that will peel 



56 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

from the casting. The mixtures given below have yielded 
very good results. The proportions may be varied to suit 
the qualities of the ingredients and to give better results in 
particular cases. When the blacking cracks or peels upon 
drying, the body has been put on too heavy or there is too 
great a percentage of clay wash. 

Receipt No. i is used for light castings or where the 
thickness of metal is less than two inches. Receipt No. 2 
is better for heavy or thick castings. Receipt No. 3 is a 
very simple mixture which gives good results on small or 
thin castings. 

Receipt No. 1. — Mix 1 part charcoal blacking, 1 part 
Lehigh blacking, 2 parts plumbago. Wet with molasses 
water or sour beer. 
Receipt No. 2. — Mix 8 parts charcoal blacking, 8 parts 
plumbago, 1 part thick clay wash. Wet with sour beer 
and allow to stand 2 or 3 days before using. 
Receipt No. 3. — Mix a clay wash from red clay" of a thick- 
ness that will color the hand when dipped into it. Add 
plumbago until it becomes of the thickness desired. 
The molds are dried by heating sufficiently to drive off 
the water from the sand. This is accomplished in many 
different ways to suit the conditions. The best method is 
to dry the mold in an oven. The oven for this purpose is 
similar to the core ovens which admit a core car. The 
molds are put on the car for placing in the oven. ■ The 
temperature is kept between 500 and 6oo° F. This will 
not burn the face of the mold and dries it very rapidly. 

Some molds are dried by injecting hot air. The mold 
is closed with the pipe from a heater projecting into it. 
All the openings and the parting are sealed with clay to 



DRY SAND MOLDING 



57 



resist the air pressure. The air is kept under a small pres- 
sure which forces it out through the sand and vents. The 
heat dries the sand, giving the desired result. One form 
of apparatus to accomplish this would consist of a heater 
or large stove having a coil of pipe in the place of the lining. 
The air is forced through this by a root blower. The 
blower is driven by a motor or belted from a shaft. The 
coil in the heater is connected to the mold by a pipe. The 
heater should be as close to the mold as convenient to re- 
duce the cooling of the air before reaching the mold. 

Another common method of drying is to use the fire 
pot. A charcoal fire is built in a fire pot and lowered into 
the mold. It should be kept at equal distances on all 
sides from the faces to be dried. The fire pot should con- 
form to the general shape of the mold. This gives un- 
equal drying on an irregular-shaped mold. When care- 
fully followed very satisfactory results are obtained. 

The face of the parting was slicked down before drying, 
so that the sand does not touch when the flask is closed. 
It is therefore necessary to place upon the face of the part- 
ing something that will seal this opening and hold the 
metal. A stiff dough made of flour and water, then rolled 
out into long strings, serves the purpose. The dough will 
flatten without damage to the mold, when the two parts of 
the mold come very near together: These strings, often 
called noodles, are placed around the edge of the mold and 
over cores which should bear on the cope. 

Dry sand may be employed without the use of facing. 
It is claimed by many of the best foundrymen that it is 
unnecessary to use flour and sea coal in the facing for a 
dry sand mold where a good blacking is used. The object 



58 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

of the flour is to make the face hard when dry, as a core. 
The sea coal is to prevent fusion of the sand and to peel 
the casting. For the medium-sizedca sting in dry sand, 
the facing used is i part new molding sand with i part old 
molding sand wet with clay wash and riddled through a 
No. 6 riddle. The backing may be of the coarsest heap 
sand. The blacking for the mold is made from Receipt 
No. 3. Castings made by this method have been found to 
peel and to leave as smooth and bright a surface as any dry 
sand mold. 

In many cases where previously dry sand molds were 
used, it is found as satisfatory to only skin-dry the mold. 
The mold is handled in the same manner as a dry sand 
mold, but the drying is continued only long enough to dry 
the sand for a depth of about two inches. 

Some kinds of sand which are quite strong with clay do 
not require the flour used in the dry sand facing, but hold 
well when moistened with clay wash, molasses water, or 
beer wash. Generally the same facing is used as in dry 
sand molds. 

A skin-dried mold has the hard surface but the backing 
is still soft. This increases the danger of crushing when 
closed and of the cutting of the metal when poured. The 
mold should be cut away at the parting and the entire 
joint slicked down slightly to ensure the bearing on the 
flask instead of on the sand. The dried crust will separate 
from the green backing much more easily than a dried 
mold would break. When a casting is so gated that it 
would be liable to cut if the sand were green, it should be 
well nailed in front of the gate before skin-drying. 

The face of the mold is finished, blackened, and slicked 



DRY SAND MOLDING 



59 



the same as in dry sand. The blacking may be put on 
dry, then moistened with molasses water; or, better, the 
wet blacking mixture may be used. 

A mold is skin-dried by the same method used for dry 
sand molds. For slightly drying the face of small molds, 
gasoline may be sprayed on the surface and burned off, 
giving a hard face. This may be used with some kinds of 
sand in the common green sand mold, giving the casting 
the appearance of coming from a dry sand mold. It gives 
a smoother casting in small work than the wet face. 

Many castings cannot be easily made in a flask, owing 
to their size or form. These are made into the floor with 
a cope to cover a part or the whole. This division of 
molding is called pit molding. Fly wheels, large sheaves, 
and large gears are made in this way more easily than in 
the drag of a flask. Many large castings that might other- 
wise be made in a flask are bedded into the pit when there 
is no flask at hand. It is much cheaper to bed the pattern 
into the floor than it would be to make a flask when only 
one casting is desired. Some molds are subjected to an 
intense down and side pressure when the metal is poured. 
It would require a very strong flask to withstand this stress, 
hence it would be very expensive. If placed in the pit, the 
sand is rammed hard to the adjoining ground, hence the 
pressure is resisted except that on the cope, which must be 
provided for by weights, or the cope must be bolted to 
anchors in the ground. 

Since there is no opening at the bottom, as in the case of 
a flask, for the escape of the gases, provision must be made 
to carry these off from the bottom of the mold. Below the 
mold at a depth of about 2 ft., a layer of coke or cinders is 



60 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

placed to collect the gases. This coke bed is connected 
to the surface by a vent pipe. All the vents from the lower 
portion of the mold extend through to this coke bed, which 
gives relief to the gases. 

To make the coke bed the pit is dug out about i \ or 2 ft. 
deeper than the mold would require. It is then leveled off 
and a layer of coke of about the size of an egg is put in to 
a thickness of 4 or 8 in. The coke is covered with hay, 
straw, or burlap to keep the sand from packing solid 
around the coke. A pipe of ample size to give free vent 
to the bed is placed at the outside to connect with the sur- 
face. The lower end of the pipe rests on the coke and is 
so covered with coke that the sand cannot enter the pipe. 
The sand may now be filled in to form the mold above. 

Making castings by use of sweeps, in the place of pat- 
terns, is being extensively practiced where but a single 
casting is required. The time required for making such 
a mold is greater than that required where a pattern is 
used, but the expense of making the pattern is saved, ex- 
cept for forming the sweeps, which is very slight. 

A simple form of the necessary rigging is illustrated in 
Fig. 47. The socket A is a cast base having a tapered hole 
in the centre for holding the spindle. The spindle B is 
made of steel or cast iron, and is uniform in diameter, 
having its lower end tapered to fit the socket. A collar is 
fitted to the spindle and has a set screw for fastening it at 
any point. This carries the sweep arm at the desired 
height. The revolving arm D is made of cast iron, bored 
to fit the spindle and having slots for bolting the sweep and 
allowing adjustment. The sweep is made of wood having 
the special shape for the desired casting. 



DRY SAND MOLDING 



6l 



The process of forming a green sand mold by use of a 
sweep may be noted in making a cover, as shown in Fig. 
48. A hole is dug into the floor and the socket is bedded 
in so as to hold the spindte plumb. A coke bed is formed 
around it with the vent pipes leading to the surface. Sand 





























O 
O 


O 
O 


1 1 - 
| 1 


















D 


L_L^ 


■ 








: : 


. '■ 


! ' 




^~N> 




® 



Fig. 47. 



is filled in and rammed to a level shown by line MN, Fig. 
49. This is well vented to the coke bed with a § in. wire. 
Facing sand is filled in and rammed to the height that it is 
to be struck off and to approximately conform to the line 
ACB of the top of the cover. The sweep arm is placed 
upon the spindle above the collar C. The sweep is made 



62 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



to conform exactly to the upper face of the cover. It is 
fastened to the arm so as to have the outer end at A strike 




Fig. 48. 





Fig. 49. 

a level face, which gives the guide for the location of the 
sweep to be used later. The collar is adjusted to give the 
outer edge of the cover at the floor line. The surface ACB 



DRY SAND MOLDING 



63 



is swept by revolving the sweep away from the cutting 
edge, as indicated at H. 

The sweep and collar are removed and the surface 
slicked for a parting surface as usual. Parting sand is 
then put upon the surface and a cope placed in position 
and staked at the corners to allow replacing after removing 
for finishing the mold. A short pipe or box is placed 
around the spindle to allow lifting the cope, as at P, Fig. 
49. The cope is rammed as usual with the necessary 
gates and risers. The cope is lifted off, finished and 




blackened. The pipe at the centre is drawn back and 
filled, then faced to the desired surface of the cope, care 
being used to properly vent it. A second sweep, E, Fig. 
50, is placed upon the spindle which exactly conforms to 
the under side of the cover, having the edge A as a gauge 
for the depth and following the level surface previously 
swept. The collar on the spindle is adjusted so that the 
level face of the sweep just touches the level face previously 
swept, then the drag is swept out to the desired shape. 
The sweep and spindle are now removed and the face of 
the mold finished. The opening left by the spindle is 
filled with cinders nearly to the surface, then facing sand is 



64 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



rammed in until the desired face is reached. The drag is 
finished and blackened, with the gates and risers properly 
connected to the mold. The cope may be replaced by aid 
of the stakes, which completes the mold as shown in Fig. 

Si- 
Methods of casting fly wheels are various. Fly wheels 

are made from part patterns which are moved about a 

centre spindle. The arms are made in core, while the rim 

may be in green sand, core sand or loam. The method of 

procedure in making a mold for a fly wheel will be given 




Fig. 51. 



in a general way, for the details cannot be understood 
until the actual experience has been met with. 

The coke bed is made under the rim to extend inside 
part way. The socket for the spindle is set in the centre 
and below the hub cores. This socket is so leveled that 
the spindle stands exactly plumb. 

The bottom core for the hub is located about the spindle. 
A sweep, so shaped as to form a bed for the arm cores of 
the wheel, is then placed on the spindle. This sweep has 
its lower edge shaped like the strike stick previously men- 
tioned. 

The bed is rammed and struck off with the sweep over 



DRY SAND MOLDING 65 

the entire portion within the rim of the wheel. This gives 
a bed such that when the arm cores are laid upon it the 
centre line of the arm is level. 

The arm cores are so placed upon the bed that their 
outer ends just touch the inner face of the pattern for the 
rim. This is gauged by fastening a vertical piece onto the 
sweep previously used at the same radius as the inner por- 
tion of the pattern. The collar on the spindle is fastened 
so as to support the sweep above the cores. The cores 
are placed so the vertical piece on the sweep will just clear 
the end, thus giving the desired radius. 

The pattern is placed upon the spindle and the rim is 
rammed, a section at a time. Each time the pattern is 
moved it is kept at an exact level, thus when the last sec- 
tion is made the pattern strikes exactly where it started. 
With wheels having a straight rim without flanges, both 
faces may be rammed in green sand. Where there is a 
flange at both edges, various methods are used. When 
the rim is light and the face less than 14 in., the lower 
flange may be made by cores laid while ramming the mold, 
and the outer face rammed at the same time. When 
large it is preferable to make the outer face in core or loam. 
The pattern then has a core print below the face and one 
above it and the green sand is rammed only on the inside 
of the rim. The cores for the face bear on the green sand 
above and below the casting and extend to the inner face 
of the flange. These cores are held in place by ramming 
the sand solid back of the cores, bringing the floor level 
with the top of the core. The cores may also be held by 
binding plates and supports to hold the outward pressure 
on the rim when the mold is poured. When the outer face 



66 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

is made of green sand, the top is covered with cores, then 
weighted down to hold the pressure. 

The gates are placed on the hub with a runner and pour- 
ing basin leading to the outside of the rim, where it is acces- 
sible to the ladle. Risers are placed on the rim and the 
casting fed through the gates and the risers, when the rim 
is heavy enough to require feeding. 

Loam is used to make large molds of the same type as 
dry sand. Loam can be easily shaped by use of a sweep, 
and when dried will resist great pressures and will give a 
casting with smooth surface the same as dry sand. Loam 
is chiefly used where the whole or a part is made with a 
sweep. 

Loam must be of a very open texture, so that in general 
the mold requires but little venting. Corners, pockets, 
projections, and parts not having free relief to the gases 
are safer when vented and these vents led to the outside. 
Hard -burned brick should never be used for the face of the 
mold, as it prevents the escape of the gases. The courses 
of brick are occasionally separated by a layer of straw to 
give better venting. 

The body portion of a loam mold is made of bricks. 
This conforms approximately to the pattern or desired face 
of the mold. The bricks are laid up in courses so as to 
break joints and to bind the whole firmly together. They 
are laid in a coarse, open mixture of loam to aid the escape 
of gases. The bricks must be of a soft porous kind. In 
some cases bricks are made from loam for forming por- 
tions of the brick wall. These are more porous and crush 
more easily than common bricks when the casting shrinks. 
They are made from a stiff mixture of coarse loam just 



DRY SAND MOLDING 67 

soft enough to work easily. The bricks are made in the 
box and laid on a plate whose face has been oiled, and are 
then dried in the oven. 

The bricks are given a first coat of coarse, open loam, 
swept to shape, and a second or finishing coat of loam 
which is finer and thinner. The thickness should never 
be less than f in. to J in. for plane surfaces, and not less 
than 1 in. in pockets, projections, etc. The thickness of 
the metal does not gauge the thickness of the loam, be- 
cause a heavy casting will scab as quickly as a thin one. 
The thicker the loam, the better the venting. 

The loam mixture is more of a mud than that of green 
or dry sand. It contains much clay combined with sharp 
sand and other materials to make it open. The exact 
mixture is entirely dependent upon the sand used. In a 
few places the natural loam is found which may be used 
without any additions. The mixture must contain enough 
clay to hold the sand together. If the mixture is too weak 
with clay, it will crumble when compressed in the hand. 
When too strong, an experienced mechanic can tell by the 
feeling, but no easy method can be pointed out. When 
the mixture is too weak the face of the mold will crack or 
crumble easily. When too strong or close the casting will 
scab, as the iron will not lie quiet against it. The 
percentage of clay determines its condition. The mix- 
ture giving the best results can only be told when the 
sands to be used are known. Several mixtures are given 
below which give good results at different places, using 
the sands available at the particular place. These may 
be taken as general guides and varied to suit the sands 
used. The clay wash generally consists of 6 to 8 parts 



68 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

of clay to i of flour, wet with water to the desired 

consistency. 

Receipt No. i. — 4 parts loam sand, 1 or 2 parts sharp 

sand, 1 part dried horse manure. Wet with medium 

thick clay wash. 
Receipt No. 2. — 4 parts molding sand, 5 part sharp sand, 

1 J parts dried horse manure, J part dried and sifted fire 

clay, J part sea coal. Wet with fair clay wash. 
Receipt No. 3. — 3 parts fire sand, 2 parts molding sand, 1 

to 10 parts horse manure. Wet with thick clay wash. 
Receipt No. 4. — 4 parts fire sand, 1 part molding sand, 1 

part dry riddled fire clay, 1 part white pine sawdust. 

Wet with thin clay wash. 
Receipt No. 5. — 2 parts loam sand, 2 parts sharp sand, 1 

part old burned loam sand, 1 part horse manure. Wet 

with thin clay wash. 



CHAPTER III 

MOLDING SAND, MOLDERS' TOOLS, MACHINES, AND 

EQUIPMENT 

A sand suitable for molding must be open to allow the 
escape of gases and must be able to hold a given form to 
withstand pressure and wash of the metal. Such a sand 
has a percentage of clay, or binding material, which will 
hold the mass together firmly when dampened and com- 
pressed. If the percentage of clay becomes too great, the 
sand is too close when compressed, so the gases cannot 
pass off; then the metal will not lie quietly against the face 
of the sand. 

The molding sands used in different parts of the country 
vary greatly in their composition. Those high in clay 
must be used with as little water as possible and must not 
be compressed or rammed much, as the mold must give 
free escape for gases through the sand. The coarse sands 
very low in clay may require much water and hard ram- 
ming in order to form a satisfactory mold. The tempering 
and ramming of the sand must be largely gauged by the 
nature of the sand the molder has at hand. 

Tempering the sand means the mixing and wetting of 
the sand ready for making a mold. It is otherwise known 

as cutting over the sand. 

69 



70 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

The sand should be mixed evenly and to a dampness 
such that it will stick together when squeezed in the hand, 
but not so wet as to show moisture or dampen the hand. 
The sand pile should be opened out so that there will be 
no holes in which the water will accumulate. The water 
should then be thrown over the sand in thin sheets by 
swinging the pail with the bottom slightly ahead of the top. 
In this manner the water is distributed evenly and does not 
cause mud in spots. If the sand is wet excessively in 
spots, as by throwing the water on the pile in a body, it re- 
quires much more shoveling to obtain an even temper, 
hence loss of time. The sand should then be shoveled 
over in order to mix thoroughly. The shoveling should 
be done so as to scatter the sand when casting it from the 
shovel. This is accomplished by giving the handle of the 
shovel a twist just as the sand is leaving it. When wishing 
to throw the sand to a distant point, it should be allowed 
to leave the shovel in a solid mass, but this does not mix 
it evenly. In mixing, a space should always be kept be- 
tween the pile from which the sand is taken and the one 
to which it is thrown. If this is not observed some of the 
sand will not be thoroughly mixed. After the sand has 
been shoveled over once it is seldom found to be mixed 
thoroughly, which makes it preferable to cut it over from 
two to three times. All the water necessary for the proper 
tempering should be put on before shoveling over the 
sand the last time. When trying to find whether the sand 
needs more water or not, the hand should be forced into the 
pile to get some sand from the interior from which to deter- 
mine its temper. This should be done at several points. 
When only a little more water is necessary it should be 






TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 71 

sprinkled on by throwing the water from the pail with the 
hand. 

The molder or helper should learn to shovel both 
right- and left-handed, so as to be able to take either side 
of the heap when working with an assistant. 

The riddle is the sieve used for sifting the sand. Its 
meshes range from 2 to the inch to 16 or 32 per inch. 
They are numbered according to the number of meshes 
per inch, as a No. 2 riddle means one having h in. meshes, 
a No. 4 has J in. meshes, a No. 16 has jq in. meshes, etc. 
In some places the riddles having the mesh finer than J in. 
are called sieves. 

In riddling sand by hand, the riddle should be held 
loosely in the hand and carried by the fingers, so that the 
palm of the hand will strike the rim as it is cast from side 
to side. Hitting the rim of the riddle in this way jars 
loose the sand that sticks to the riddle, keeps the meshes 
open better, and allows the sand to pass through more 
freely. By practice in holding the riddle in this manner, 
a rocking swing may be obtained which jars the riddle at 
each turn and carries but very little weight on the fingers. 
It is often found of advantage, especially in fine riddles, to 
put some irons in with the sand, as gaggers, etc. These 
irons scrape the wires clean and add to the jarring of the 
riddle. 

When not in use, the riddle should always be hung up on 
a nail or placed on the sand heap with the screen up. If 
left with the screen resting on the sand, the meshes become 
clogged, thus hindering the passage of the sand through 
the screen. 

There are many forms of mechanical sand sifters. The 



72 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

two representative forms of pneumatic sifters are shown in 
Figs. 92 and 94, while the belt-driven sifters are shown in 
Figs. 99 and 100. 

Facing sand is placed next to the pattern in making a 
mold in order that the sand will peel, or part, from the 
casting freely and leave a smooth surface. Facing sand 
contains a percentage of sea coal and usually new sand, de- 
pendent upon the kind of work for which it is to be used. 

The percentage of sea coal varies greatly, depending 
upon the thickness of metal and type of casting. The 
limits are 1 part of sea coal to 2 parts of sand, and 1 part 
of sea coal to 16 to 20 parts of sand. The limiting pro- 
portions are very seldom used. The usual proportions are 
from 1 to 6, to 1 to 14 of sand, depending on the thickness 
of the metal. When the metal is thinner than J in. no 
facing is necessary. Better and smoother castings are ob- 
tained in this case by using heap sand riddled through a 
fine riddle onto the pattern. For metal between J- in. and 
1 in. the proportion should be about 1 part of sea coal to 
12 or 14 parts of sand; between 1 in. and 2 in., 1 part of sea 
coal to 8 or 10 parts of sand; above 2 in., 1 part of sea coal 
to 6 or 8 parts of sand. 

The sand used in the facing may also vary in its propor- 
tion of new and old sand. This is dependent upon the 
sand used. The most general proportion is 1 part of new 
sand to from 3 to 5 parts of old sand. Greater percentages 
of new sand may be used on heavy work. The limiting 
case is a facing made of entirely new sand for the cope of 
very heavy work. 

It is not always the thickness of the casting that regu- 
lates the strength of the facing sand. There are many 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 73 

other things to be considered: (1) whether the casting is to 
be poured with hot or dull iron; (2) the distance of some 
parts of the mold from the gate; (3) the time it will take 
the mold to become filled with iron; (4) whether the metal 
is running over flat surfaces, and (5) is covering them 
slowly or quickly. Then again, heavy solid castings have 
become "cold-shot" owing to the use of facings that were 
weak in proportion to the casting, caused by the slow rising 
of the metal in pouring. Strong facings on the sides of a 
mold, where the iron enters and rises slowly, may easily 
cause heavy castings to be "cold-shot." Again, the square 
corners of castings should, in general, have weaker facings 
than the straight, plain surfaces. The lower parts of deep 
molds should have a stronger facing than the upper por- 
tion, because the metal becomes dull while rising to the top 
of the mold. If the facing suitable for the lower portion 
were used at the upper, the. casting at the upper part would 
become curly or partly cold-shot at the surface. A new 
sand without mixture will require more sea coal than if it 
were mixed with old or common heap sand. 

A thorough mixing of the facing is necessary. If the 
sea coal is not evenly mixed, it often causes the casting to 
be streaked, veined, or cold-shot. 

In mixing by hand it is almost impossible to distribute 
the sea coal evenly, therefore it is important that it should 
be handled several times in order to come as near as pos- 
sible to a thorough mixture. 

In mixing, the old and new sand should be kept as dry 
as possible when shoveled over in order to mix well. The 
sea coal is added while the sand is spread out thin. The 
whole is cut over once or twice, then riddled through a No. 



74 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

6 or 8 riddle. It is then tramped down and water put on 
to give the proper temper, as in the case of tempering the 
heap sand. It is again cut over to mix the wet and dry 
sand, then riddled through a No. 4 riddle. It is now 
ready to be riddled onto the pattern. The mixture should 
always be riddled twice, and better still, three or four times. 
It is best to use sand quite dry to start the mixture, as when 
wet the sea coal sticks in small balls and does not mix well. 

In large foundries, the facing sand is mixed by a facing 
machine which gives a mixture of exact proportions and 
more thoroughly mixed than can be done by hand. 

The frame in which a mold is made is called a flask. 
It is composed of two or more parts. The bottom part is 
called the drag or nowel, the top part is called the cope, 
and the intermediate parts, when used, are called the 
cheek. Flasks are made of wood or iron. 

The form of flask used for small patterns when the pres- 
sure of the metal is very little, is represented in Fig. 52. 
These are called snap flasks. They are hinged at one 
corner and fasten at the diagonal corner with a snap. 
The mold is rammed in the flask and when ready for pour- 
ing the flask is unsnapped and removed. Thus many 
molds may be made with a single flask. Before casting, 
a frame the same size as the flask is placed around the 
body of sand and a weight is placed on top to prevent 
straining the mold when under pressure. 

Small flasks up to 14 in. square may best be made of 
iron, without bars in the cope. Those larger may be of 
either wood or iron to suit the style of work to be put in the 
flask. When the flask is for a special pattern and is to be 
used for that only, an iron flask will give the better service 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 



75 



and is far cheaper. When for general patterns, the wood 
flask has many advantages. The bars may be fitted to a 
pattern in wood with little time or expense, and for a class 
of small work up to 40 in. square, may be made of sufficient 
strength. Larger flasks are made of wood having bolts 
or iron bars for stiffening the cope. When but a single 
casting is desired, even to very large castings, the flask may 




Fig. 52. 



be more cheaply made with a wood frame and iron bars 
than entirely of iron. 

In manufacturing shops having a fixed line of patterns, 
the iron flask is of great value. The first cost is more than 
that of a wood flask, but the durability far exceeds that of 
wood. The bars are shaped to suit the pattern, and they 
remain so; while a wood bar burns out and the joint of the 
wood flask burns away leaving holes which may cause a 
un-out, thus losing the casting. The iron flask is much 



76 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

heavier to handle, but it may be fitted so as to require less 
anchoring in the sand, as gaggers and soldiers which would 
be required in a wood flask; thus the time saved in molding 
will more than equal the extra help necessary to handle the 
flask. Large flasks to hold castings, as cylinders, engine 
girders, bed castings, etc., and flasks to be used many 
times, should be made of iron and well braced. They are 
then ready at all times and may be used without loss of 
time in repairs. 

To point out the saving resulting from the use of a flask 
instead of bedding the pattern into the pit, the relative 
time required for making a girder casting in the two ways 
may be cited. Before the flask was made to hold the pat- 
tern, it was bedded into the pit with a cope to cover it. It 
required a time equivalent of 14 days for a molder and 
helper to complete and cast the mold. After the flask was 
made so the pattern was rammed in the drag and turned 
over, it required a time equivalent of 9 days for a molder 
and helper to make the same casting. 

Holders' tools vary greatly with the general type of 
work that the molder is making. The number of tools 
necessary for a molder on a particular type of work may 
be three or four, while on intricate work many tools may 
be required. There are tool manufacturers who can fur- 
nish tools of nearly any size or shape that a molder may 
desire. The more common forms are shown in Fig. 53. 
These are used for nearly all classes of work and are made 
in many sizes as desired. No. 1 is a round point finishing 
trowel; No. 2, a square trowel; No. 3, a lifter for remov- 
ing sand from deep and narrow parts of a mold; No. 4, 
a flange and bead tool for slicking special round surfaces; 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 



77 



Nos. 5 and 6 are two forms of double-end slicks which 
represent the general forms out of greatly varying forms of 
such tools; No. 5 has an oval slick at one end with the 
spoon slick at the other; No. 6 has the square and heart 
slicks; Nos. 7, 8 and 9 show corner slicks of which No. 7 
is for round corners, No. 8 for square, and No. 9 for inside 
corners; Nos. 10 and 11 are pipe slicks for cylindrical 




Fig. 53. 



surfaces; No. 10 has the square ends, while No. 11 has 
the safe end for a corner slick. 

The success of making the mold and obtaining a good 
casting is dependent mainly upon the manner of ramming 
the sand to form the mold. Hard spots in the sand cause 
scabs, and soft spots cause swells. Unevenness of ram. 
ming causes similar unevenness in the casting. 

In ramming the drag, the flask should be filled to a 



78 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

depth of from 5 to 6 inches, ramming first around the edge 
of the flask, then next to the pattern, and, lastly, the por- 
tion between, using the pein. On small castings, it is 
rarely necessary to ram the sand over the pattern. The 
pein or the butt of the rammer should never strike within 
an inch of the pattern, as it will cause a hard spot at that 
point. 

In deep molds the succeeding rammings should be done 
by filling in loose sand to the depth of about 6 inches, and 
ramming first with the pein then with the butt in order to 
give the mold the proper degree of hardness. 

In ramming the drag, either the pein or the butt may be 
used as soon as the pattern is well covered, so that the ram- 
ming is not near the pattern. It is of advantage to tramp 
the sand with the feet before butting, as that more quickly 
compresses it to a moderate hardness and facilitates the 
butt ramming. 

In ramming the rim of a pulley, the rammer should be 
directed away from the pattern to prevent scabbing the 
rim. 

The larger the pattern, the harder the sand may be 
rammed. When of a depth to give a great pressure on the 
bottom, the sand must be rammed harder to hold the pres- 
sure and prevent the cracking of the surface, causing rough- 
ness sometimes called "whiskers." 

On patterns of the round column type, the sand may be 
rammed very much harder than in other cases, if the metal 
is to be thick. It is very important to have these rammed 
evenly, as unevenness will cause defects in the casting; 
even though it is not of a hardness at any point which 
would be detrimental were the entire mold of that hardness. 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 79 

The softer the sand can be left and still hold the casting 
in proper form, the less is the liability of losing the casting. 
The sand must be hard enough to hold its shape, but after 
that the risk of loss in casting is increased as the hardness 
is increased. 

In ramming the cope where there are no bars, the sand 
is filled in to a depth of about six inches and rammed 
around inside the flask, then the remaining portion is 
rammed evenly with the pein. The butt should not be 
used in the cope until the entire flask is filled, then the 
last ramming on top is done with the butt. If the butt 
is used before this it causes a hard surface, so that the 
sand does not unite in the succeeding ramming and is 
liable to fall out when the cope is turned over. When 
the cope has bars, each division enclosed by the bars is 
rammed separately as a small cope, but all the divisions 
must be of an even hardness. The successive rammings 
are made by filling in about six inches at a time and 
ramming with the pein. 

The proper manner of holding the floor rammer while 
ramming is to grip the rod connecting the pein and butt 
with one hand above the other. Never hold the rammer 
with one hand on top of the upper end of the rammer, as it 
will jar the operator, and it is harder to do good ramming 
while in this position. 

The proper venting of a mold is of as great importance 
as any part of the process. If at any point the venting is 
insufficient to carry off the gases, the metal will blow and 
spoil the casting. 

The air in the mold, when the metal is being poured, 
must be able to escape. This is provided for in some 



80 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

cases by the riser, but often the vents are depended upon 
for this purpose. The water in the sand is evaporated as 
steam and must escape through the sand. The continued 
addition of sea coal in the facing, and flour and plumbago 
in the mold, increases the formation of gases when the 
metal comes in contact with the face of the mold. If these 
cannot escape into the sand, they force an opening 
through the molten metal, which is known as blowing. To 
enable the gases to pass through the sand, the mold must 
be properly vented. Some sands are so coarse and open 
that they require much less venting than others which are 
fine and close in texture. 

Small and thin castings, rammed lightly, require no 
venting. In casting heavy, thick plates the drag must be 
well vented, but the cope does not require much venting, 
although it is always best to vent it. In venting any plain 
casting, the size of vent wire is mainly dependent upon the 
depth of sand to be vented. For flasks up to 12 in. in 
depth, -J in. wire serves well. The exact size of wire used 
is unimportant, so that the venting is close enough to give 
free escape for the gases. The vent wire should not strike 
the pattern or scrape along a side, as it forms holes that the 
metal may flow through and allows the metal to stop up the 
vent, which gives the same condition as though there were 
no vent. The bottom board should be put on the drag and 
rubbed to a bearing, then removed, and the surface creased 
crosswise by striking with the corner of a stick to reach 
the width of the drag, then the drag vented. The creases 
form openings through which the gases may escape when 
the drag is turned over. 

For small castings, the cope should be vented through 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 8l 

almost to the pattern to give free escape for the gases and 
air. For larger castings it is often advisable to leave a 
layer of two to three inches next to the pattern without 
vents. This does not give free escape for the air; thus a 
pressure can be maintained within the mold while pour- 
ing, which prevents the drawing down of the cope. 

Many molds have enclosed bodies of sand which do 
not have free vent connections with the top or bottom 
of the flask, as anchors in pulley molds, centre parts in 
three -part flasks, or large green sand cores. The vent 
must be led to some convenient point where an opening 
is left through the cope for the gases to escape. A gutter 
may be cut around the surface of the body of sand about 
three or four inches from the pattern and connected to 
the vent opening. Slant vents from the gutter will give 
free vent to the gases. 

In some molds there are pockets having metal on all 
sides but one. The vent must be led away through this 
side and this very freely. When the pocket is small, a 
.vent rod may be laid in it, and slant vents leading to 
the pattern give the necessary relief. When the pocket 
is of large size, it is not safe to depend on the slanting 
vent. In these cases the gases are collected by a coke 
or cinder bed laid in the pocket and led to the outside 
by a vent pipe or large vent rod. 

In some patterns, as columns, the vent may be led 
off at the parting instead of through the bottom of the 
drag. After the flask is rammed up and the cope 
removed, vents are made under the pattern from the 
surface of the drag at a distance of about two inches 
apart. These are led to the outside by cutting, or 



82 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

scratching, a small gutter in the surface from the vent to 
the flask. \ 

Pit molds and all floor molds must be provided with 
a cinder bed located about one and one half or two feet 
below the casting to provide for the escape of the gases 
of the lower half of the mold. The cinder bed is con- 
nected to the surface by vent pipes, which give free 
passage for the gases. Very deep molds may have 
cinder beds located at different levels around the mold. 
The gases are led to the cinder bed by freely venting 
the mold so that the wire strikes the bed. 

Surtace molds require much better venting than those 
covered with a cope, as the metal gives no pressure 
except its weight; thus it cannot force the gases against 
much resistance. Small surface molds may not require 
venting, if the sand is rammed only enough to prevent 
the metal cutting when poured. Large molds must be 
provided with a cinder bed which has free vent to the 
surface. The mold must be well vented to the bed. 

When two parts of a flask are to be lifted apart after 
the sand is rammed, it is necessary to make the surface 
at the parting so that the two bodies of sand will not 
knit together but separate freely when the flask is opened. 
In order to ensure the parting, the surface of the sand 
must be slicked smooth after making the surface harder 
than the other part of the mold and covered with a part- 
ing sand. 

When the drag is turned over and the follow board is 
removed, the surface is gone over with the hand and sand 
tucked in wherever soft spots are found. The sand is 
then cut away to the parting of the pattern or to the 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT &$ 

surface of the part. A thin coat of sand is then riddled 
onto this surface and the whole slicked to a smooth face. 
The additional sand compacts the surface to a harder 
shell and should not be easily broken by the ramming 
of the sand that rests on this parting. This slicking 
must not be carried to an extent of causing an extra hard, 
or bricklike face, as this will cause defective castings 
similar to hard spots in ramming. 

Parting sand is put over the surface in a thin coating. 
All parts of the sand must be covered, for any spots left 
bare will stick and not give a clean part. Parting sand 
used for this purpose may be any fine, dry, sharp sand, 
very fine cinders, or burnt core sand from the burned 
cores in the castings. This sand is most convenient on 
all plane surfaces and where the slope is not so great that 
it will not stay on the entire face. In cases where the 
dry sand will not cover the surface well, wet sharp sand 
makes a good part. The fine, sharp sand is dampened 
until the sand sticks together, then it is put onto the 
surface with the hand or slicked on with a tool. It often 
helps to dust a little dry parting sand over the wet sand 
after it is on the surface, as the wet sand sometimes sticks 
when the surfaces are lifted apart. 

Parting sand and burnt core sand make molding sand 
coarse and weak, as it loses its strength to hold a form 
when rammed. Too much of the parting sand will 
spoil the sand for the mold. 

Gates are the openings through which the metal enters 
the mold. The location of the gate makes a great differ- 
ence in the resulting casting. A mechanic can show his 
ability in gating properly more readily than in any other 



84 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

part of the mold. Many castings are lost just because 
the molder is not particular enough in locating and 
cutting his gates. 

All plain castings having about an even thickness, 
and that greater than the runners, are gated at the side 
and present little or no difficulty. As thin plates having 
runners heavier than the casting set sooner than the 
runner, they cannot be gated at the side, because when 
the runner cools the casting will be strained or warped. 
A good form of gate in such cases is that known as the 
bridge gate, having a basin above which is connected to 
the mold by a long narrow opening through which the 
metal enters. This gate is easily broken off and leaves 
the casting straight. 

On any casting having ribs running from the side to 
the bottom, the metal should be directed lengthwise of 
the rib, in preference to flowing over the edge of the sand, 
as there will be less danger of the metal cutting the sand. 

The thin parts of a casting should be filled as quickly 
as possible after the metal starts into them. A casting 
having heavy and light parts should be gated so that 
the thin parts can be filled quickly, and not rise slowly, 
as when filling both the heavy and light parts at the same 
time. If the gate is placed on a thin part so that the 
metal flows over the surface of the mold into the heavy 
portion of the casting, the inflowing metal will become 
cooled, and as it rises into the thinner parts it is liable 
to become cold-shot or form seams, which spoils the 
casting. 

The gate must be so located that the metal will not 
flow over a sharp bead of sand which may be washed 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 85 

away. This difficulty is sometimes overcome by use of 
the horn gate. 

The common use of a riser on small castings is to 
allow the air and gases to pass out of the mold while 
it is being poured. The dirt carried into the mold by 
the inflow of metal is carried on the surface of the iron, 
and, as the metal rises in the riser, the dirt is floated out 
of the casting. 

On large castings or those whose shrinkage is great, 
the riser is made large so as to supply metal to feed the 
shrinkage. The riser must be large enough so that it 
will not freeze until the casting itself has set. If the 
shrinkage is not thus taken care of, the casting is liable 
to have shrink-holes in it. 

The location of the riser for small castings is not of 
great importance, although it is best to have it where 
the dirt is most liable to accumulate. In castings where 
it acts as a feeder, it should be connected as near as pos- 
sible to the heaviest part of the casting. In castings of 
such a size as to require feeding, the riser is placed over 
the heaviest part of the casting and it becomes a feed- 
ing head. In this case the casting is fed by a feeding 
rod, which keeps the riser from freezing until the casting 
sets. This process is called feeding, or churning, the 
casting. In some cases, as cannons or rolls which are 
cast on end, the casting is made longer than that desired 
and the end turned off in the lathe. The extra length 
takes the place of the feeding head and is known as a 
sinking head. In this case the casting does not require 
feeding. 

Some foundries making castings only up to the me- 



86 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



dium weight never make use of the feeding rod, but, 
instead, depend on the riser as a sinking head and pour 
the iron as dull as it can be run into the mold. These 
castings are often unsatisfactory and frequently have 
shrink-holes in their upper surface. 

A skim gate is an arrangement of gates, risers, and 
runners leading to a mold, whereby a supply of pure 
metal may be obtained, and the impurities remain in 
the riser. An ordinary skim gate may be constructed, 




Fig. 54. 

as in Fig. 54. The molten metal enters through the pour- 
ing gate a and flows through the runner c into the riser 
b. The impurities come to the top in the riser while 
the pure metal, being heavier, remains at the bottom and 
flows out through the runner d into the mold e. The 
arrangement of the gate, runner, and riser, as shown in 
the plan view, is for the purpose of giving the metal a 
rotary motion while rising in the riser b. This is in- 
tended to aid the separation of the impure metal, sand, 
and dirt from the pure metal. The runner d is below 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 



87 



the level of the runner c. The cross-section of c must 
be greater than that of d to ensure keeping the riser b 
full while the metal is being poured. Good results and 
sound castings are obtained by the use of this arrange- 
ment for the gate. 

The top gate with the pouring basin, shown in Fig. 35, 
forms a good skimming gate. It is upon the principle 
that the pure metal being heavier flows into the mold 
from the bottom of the basin, while the impurities remain 






Fig. 55. 



at the top. In pouring, the basin must be kept full so 
that the metal enters the gate from the bottom instead 
of from the surface of the metal in the basin. The only 
time when dirt can be carried into the mold is before the 
basin is full. The dirt is carried ahead of the metal. 

The preceding arrangements are formed by the gate 
sticks, gate cutter, and trowel. A very convenient de- 
vice for forming a skim gate is by use of a pattern, as 
shown in Fig. 55. This pattern is rammed up in the 
drag with the pattern to be molded. The portion marked 



88 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

A is a core print. After drawing the pattern, the core 
B is placed in the prints. The metal entering at C is 
given a rotary motion under the riser placed at D where 
the impurities rise. The pure metal flows under the core 
into the mold through E. 

There are few things in connection with making a 
mold that are of greater importance than the construc- 
tion of the pouring basin, gate, runner, and riser. Skill 
is necessary to be thoroughly successful in their construc- 
tion. In these, the washing or cutting away of the sand 
by the force of the falling metal is most likely to occur. 
When this takes place, great damage is likely to result 
to the casting. If the molder should slight any other 
portion of the mold, he may still get a casting which 
would pass inspection; but any neglect or ignorance in 
the construction of the pouring basin, gates, or runners 
will usually spoil the casting. When the sand in these 
cuts or breaks, the loose sand flows, with the metal into 
the mold and causes a dirty casting. Great care should 
be taken to have the sand well tempered for the con- 
struction of a pouring basin. To make a reliable pour- 
ing basin, the sand should be rammed evenly into the 
box, or frame, and the basin cut out with the trowel. 
This ensures an even solidity to the sand and prevents 
cutting or washing. 

Gaggers are L-shaped irons used by molders to an- 
chDr the sand into the flask. The lower end of the 
gagger is called the "heel," and varies in length from 
two to six inches, to suit different conditions. The other 
portion of the gagger may be of any length to suit the 
depth of flask in which it is used. Some gaggers are 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 89 

made with a short hook bent at the upper end for hook- 
ing over the bar of the cope to ensure firmness in lifting. 
They are made either of wrought or cast iron. Wrought 
iron is preferable, for in some places it is necessary to 
bend the gagger to suit the particular conditions. 

Gaggers are of great assistance in securing sand into 
a flask and in many cases are indispensable. To obtain 
a good lift in a cope without gaggers, requires the bars 
to be in very good condition and to come near to the 
parting. With gaggers, the sand may be anchored with 
out the bars being new for each special casting. 

The strength with which the gaggers hold the sand 
depends upon the manner in which they are set. When 
properly set they hold with great efficiency. When set 
wrongly, they only add weight tending to pull the sand 
down or cause a drop-out. 

The gagger should be so placed that the heel comes 
near to the parting of the sand to be lifted and should 
be parallel to it. The length of the gagger should come 
against the bar or frame of the flask, as shown at A in 
Fig. 17. It is not always necessary to have the gagger 
stand vertical, although that is the best position. Odd 
slopes may often be accommodated by slanting the 
gagger or bending the heel. Oftentimes mistakes are 
made in setting gaggers improperly and cause trouble. 
A few ways of setting gaggers so they do not hold as 
desired are shown in Fig. 17. At B the gagger will hold 
the sand above all right, but the sand below is liable to 
drop. In this cope the desired end could be accom- 
plished by placing the gagger against the bar at right 
angles and have the heel parallel to the face of the slope. 



90 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

At C the heel comes onto the slope rightly, but the length 
of the gagger does not come against a bar, therefore it 
does not hold anything. In almost every case the gagger 
would drop down when the cope is lifted off. At D the 
gagger is placed at a slight slope to the bar and its heel 
parallel with the parting. This will usually hold quite 
well, but is not strong nor a good way to set the gagger. 
The holding power depends upon the sand pressing the 
gagger against the bar firmly and compressing closely 
around it. Another mistake sometimes made in setting 
gaggers is to have several located in a corner against one 
another and the heels radiating in different directions to 
hold in a difficult place. The sand can not compress 
around all the gaggers or hold them firmly together. 
Part of them are held only by the friction of one on the 
other, which is insufficient, and will drop out. 

The number of gaggers needed is dependent upon the 
sand used and the width and depth of the body of sand 
lifted. When holding a corner or edge of sand by a 
gagger, have the gagger as near as possible to the edge 
and parallel with it. Always be sure the gagger is covered 
with at least a thin coating of sand. If not, the iron is 
liable to cause an explosion when coming in contact with 
the wet rust. Before setting in the sand, the heel of 
the gagger must be wet in clay wash or flour paste. 
Otherwise the sand will not stick to it. Have at least 
two-thirds of the length of the gagger come against the 
bar, and have the gagger as long as the cope will allow. 

Soldiers are wooden strips or pieces placed in the sand 
to anchor the body together. They are made of size, 
length, and shape to suit the case where they are to be 



TOOLS. MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 91 

used. Oftentimes soldiers are placed beside bars to hold 
hanging bodies of sand, instead of having special bars. 

The holding power of soldiers is much greater than 
that of rods or nails, as the sand packs against their un- 
even surface and will not give without tearing up the 
entire body of sand. This will be fully appreciated if 
you try to pull a soldier out after it is rammed into the 
sand. The customary use is for holding small bodies of 
sand that can not be held by gaggers. It is not neces- 
sary to have the soldier come against a bar. It holds 
firmly when in the body of the sand itself. 

In setting soldiers, they should have the lower end wet 
in clay wash and pressed down to place in the sand before 
ramming. The sand should be in a loose coating of 
about one inch over the parting to be soldiered, then 
when the soldier is placed, some sand will remain below 
the wood, but there should not be a thick coating that 
may fall away after the pattern is removed. The main 
precaution is to be sure that the wood is covered by sand 
and not have that coating such that it may fall away 
and expose the soldier. In case the soldier is exposed 
to the mold, the molten metal will ignite the wood, giving 
gases that can not escape fast enough, thus causing the 
. metal to blow. This sometimes throws the metal for a 
great distance, endangering the safety of the men near 
by. Even a very thin coat of sand will prevent the blow- 
ing from the soldier. 

The points or corners of a mold are usually held by 
nails or rods. When a body of sand comes under the 
pattern, the nails or rods are set similarly to soldiers and 
rammed into the sand. When the pattern is liable to 



92 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

tear in drawing or a body of sand is not strong in itself, 
it should be well nailed when being rammed. 

Green sand cores which are exposed at the parting 
may best be nailed after the flask is rammed, for then 
the nail head supports the surface of the sand while the 
nail strengthens the entire body of the core. Whenever 
there is doubt of the strength of a corner or core, be sure 
to secure well by nails. 

Where the mold is of such shape as to endanger the 
metal cutting at any point, the part should be well nailed 
after the pattern is removed, leaving the heads of the 
nails exposed. A few nails placed where a corner or 
surface is liable to cut or wash by the inflowing metal 
will prevent the washing away of the sand and will secure 
the surface in a surprising degree. 

Rods are often rammed in the sand to strengthen and 
bind a body of sand that must resist a pressure from the 
metal. Any large green sand core must be well rodded 
to give the mass strength and firmness. When the sur- 
face of a green sand mold must resist strong pressure 
of the metal, the sand must be well tied together with 
rods. In a pit mold for fly wheels, the head in the risers 
gives a head on the sand of from 2 ft. to 4 ft., which 
means a pressure per square inch of from 8 to 14 pounds. 
This is resisted by rods laid close together in the sand 
when the mold is rammed. In pockets having metal 
under a portion of them, giving a strong lifting pressure, 
rods are laid in to take up the strain and secure the 
pocket firmly. 

A molder's skill is shown in his ability to patch a 
mold, much more than in any other part of his trade. 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 93 

In some cases patching and botching are synonymous, 
but with a good molder the latter is not known. Many 
patterns can not be removed from the sand without more 
or less tearing of the mold, and many old patterns are 
used that an unskilled man would think impossible to 
get a good casting from. A good molder will be able 
to repair a mold that seems almost completely ruin&i 
when the pattern is removed, and to get as good a cast- 
ing as though the pattern were perfect and he secured a 
good draw ; the difference being mainly in the time neces- 
sary to finish the mold. 

Practice and experience with different cases and con- 
ditions can alone fit a man to cope with cases requiring 
much patching, but we can offer a few suggestions that 
may be helpful to the beginner. When the sand is dry 
or tempered properly for the main body of the mold, 
it is nearly impossible to patch the sand at corners or 
difficult places. To begin, then, the part to be patched 
should be dampened with the swab, being careful not 
to wet the sand so as to cause the casting to blow. In 
patching a corner, place a tool or a straight face against 
one side and press the sand in at the other. A good 
corner can not be made with a single tool alone. Sand 
pressed on with the fingers may be added to and will 
hold firmly. When put on with a trowel, a surface is 
made which will not unite well with the sand put on after- 
wards. Patching done with the fingers will not cause a 
scab on the casting, but slicking a patch may act similarly 
to being rammed too hard at that point. Where much 
sand is to be put on, put nails in the place to be patched 
so the heads will come a little below the finished surface. 



94 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



The nails help to hold the sand while putting it on and 
secure the patch after it is finished. Whenever the 
patched part is quite large, it should be well nailed after 
finishing, so that the heads come flush with the surface. 
In patching down in a mold, sand may be put on by 
pressing small balls of sand onto a tool so that it will 
carry its weight, then lower to the desired place and 
lightly slick on. 

In finishing the mold, the entire surface must be closely 
examined to be sure that it conforms to the casting de- 
sired. The loose sand at the edges must be pressed 
back to place or removed so that it will not fall into the 
mold when the flask is closed, thus causing a dirty cast- 
ing. All loose sand in the path of the inflowing metal 
must be removed. Be sure the runners are made so that 
the sand will not wash when pouring the mold. 

The last thing before closing a mold, a molder should 
see that all loose sand is removed and the mold is clean. 
If portions of the mold are dark, light may be thrown in 
by a small hand mirror which may be turned so as to 
light the desired parts. 

Thin and weak patterns have oftentimes to be 
strengthened by pieces which are stopped off in the 
mold, leaving the desired shape of casting. Where a 
pattern is uniform throughout its section and castings 
are desired of different lengths, a pattern is made for the 
greatest length and the mold is stopped off to the desired 
length for the casting. 

In stopping off strengthening pieces, the face of the 
sand in the part to be filled is cut up with a tool, then 
filled with sand and tucked with the fingers. Fill in 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 95 

small amounts at a time so the sand will be of the same 
hardness as other parts of the mold. When within about 
half an inch of the finished surface, the part should 
be well vented through the sand. The finished face is 
slicked with the trowel, being careful not to get the 
face too hard. 

When stopping off a portion of the pattern, a stop-off 
piece which conforms to the pattern at that point is laid 
in and the end formed to the piece. When without a 
stop-off piece the end is formed by a trowel or a piece 
of wood and the sand filled in to close that part of the 
mold. 

The face of the sand should always be cut so the sand 
pressed onto it will unite and hold firmly. When the 
metal is not to cover the face made in the stopping-off, 
it is not necessary to vent the sand nor to be so particular 
in obtaining an even hardness; but it is always advisable 
to be as careful with this as in cases that are more par- 
ticular. 

When a mold is filled, the metal freezes at the surface 
first. The bottom solidifies before any other part, then 
the other surfaces where the heat is most readily carried 
off. This solid surface gives a fixed form which resists 
any force tending to change its shape. As the metal 
shrinks upon solidifying, something must replace this 
shrinkage. After the outside surface is set, the metal is 
drawn from the still molten centre of the casting to re- 
place the shrinkage. This gives a porous, honey-combed 
centre which has no strength. This defective condition 
is prevented by feeding hot iron to the centre of the 
casting while it is solidifying to replace this shrinkage. 



g6 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

There are two general methods of feeding a casting: 
first, using a sinking head; second, feeding by use of a 
feeding rod. A sinking head is where the mold, when 
standing in a vertical position, is made longer than the 
desired casting and of the same size. The excess length 
is filled with metal and allowed to sink to replace the 
shrinkage of the casting below. This excess is turned 
off, giving the solid casting. To greatly reduce the work 
of turning off a large part of a casting, the feeding head 
is made much smaller than the casting and kept open by 
means of a feeding rod. 

The feeding head must always be large enough to 
enable it to be kept open until the casting below has set. 
When the feeding head is small, it freezes almost before 
a rod can be inserted, hence does not accomplish its pur- 
pose. It is always safe to expect that some of the metal 
will freeze to the sides of the feeder all the time, even if 
the metal is kept in motion constantly; hence the feeder 
must be increased to allow for this in proportion to the 
time that it should be kept open. A feeding rod can not 
be used to advantage in a feeder less than three inches in 
diameter. This can be kept open only a short time, 
hence becomes ineffective where the casting below re- 
quires quite a time to solidify. Where a large feeder 
cannot be used, due to bars or to conditions that cannot 
be avoided, a small one may be made to keep open longer 
by increasing its length and supplying hot iron to heat 
this portion above that of the casting. 

A large riser or feeder may have a much smaller open- 
ing into the casting and still be as effective. A 3-inch 
feeder may have an opening into the casting ij inches in 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 97 

diameter and give as good results as though the full size 
of the feeder were opened through. This allows the use 
of a much larger feeder and permits of its removal from 
the casting as easily as the smaller one. The smaller 
opening is kept from freezing by use of the feeding rod. 

The rod should be heated in the ladle before lowering 
into the feeder, to prevent chilling the iron. It should be 
lowered slowly into the mold until the bottom is touched, 
then lifted two or three inches and given an up-and- 
down motion. Due to this motion it is commonly called 
" pumping," or " churning," a casting. The feed rod 
should not strike the bottom of the mold, as it is liable 
to punch a hole in the mold, causing a bunch on the 
casting. The rod should be held at one side of the centre 
and moved around to keep as large an opening as pos- 
sible at the entrance of the feeder into the casting. A 
casting properly fed will freeze from the bottom and 
slowly crowd the feed rod out of the casting until at last 
it is only in the riser. 

The job of feeding a casting is not a pleasant one. 
The direct radiation from the metal and the burning 
gases about the flask make it very hot and disagreeable 
work. For this reason, many molders will freeze up a 
riser long before the casting below has set. It is very 
marked that often in feeding a number of the same cast- 
ings, poured at the same time, part of the men will have 
their feeders frozen long before the others do. Those 
who froze theirs first have castings the same on the sur- 
face as the others, but the centres would be very different 
were the castings cut open. The man keeping his feeder 
open the longest has the strongest and most solid casting. 



o8 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

The size of the rod used is unimportant except when 
it is so large that it closes up the feeder rather than keep- 
ing it open. In a feeder smaller than 3 in., the feeding 
rod should be J-in. For larger feeders, the rod may be 
increased. A f-in. rod is most commonly used, as larger 
ones become too heavy to handle and quickly tire the 
workman. 

The proper setting and venting of cores is an im- 
portant factor in molding. Cores are made of sand with 
binders which, when dry, form a solid mass of the desired 
shape. They are placed in a mold to make the casting 
different, in part, from the pattern. When burned by 
the molten metal, the core crumbles and leaves the cast- 
ing hollow in that part. The core may be made to form 
recesses, to hollow out the inside, or to make holes of 
desired shape through the casting. 

The binders which hold the sand together in the core, 
the entrained gases of the new sand, and other constitu- 
ents of the core, burn out, forming a volume of gas that 
must be allowed to escape when the metal comes in con- 
tact with the core. If the gases are not properly carried 
off, they force their way through the easiest relief, which 
may be through the molten metal, causing blowing; this 
spoils the casting, making the body spongy, if not blow- 
ing nearly all the metal out of that portion of the mold. 

When a core is made, vents are always provided to 
carry the gases to some particular points where they may 
be conducted away through the sand of the mold. A 
core completely surrounded with metal, except at its vent, 
must be well provided with free passage for the gases. 
Cores having the metal only on one face, as slab cores 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 99 

covering a plane surface, do not require special venting, 
as the sand will carry off the gases freely enough. Small 
cores partly surrounded with metal do not require special 
venting, as the sand will be sufficient to take up the small 
amount of gases given off. 

Where prints are provided on the pattern for simple 
cores, the setting of the core is a simple matter. The 
vent must be provided for, then the core is lowered into 
the print recess which anchors the core in the desired 
position. Round cores having a print at both ends must 
be set into the drag so as to enter the print of the cope 
without tearing up the top of the mold. This can be 
done by the eye in lining it from different directions, being 
sure that it is directed vertically. Horizontal cores have 
the print of both ends to rest the core on. The cores 
thus far considered are held in position by the print recess 
in the mold. 

Many forms of cores have prints for locating the core, 
but nothing to hold the core from floating when the metal 
is poured into the mold. Small cores, as those for making 
a hole in a depressed lug, may be anchored by placing 
nails slantwise into the sand to bear against the core. 

Large cores resting in the drag are held down by 
means of chaplets, as considered under the setting of 
chaplets (Fig. 57). 

Many cores have no print in the drag but have one in 
the cope. In such cases the cores are anchored in the 
cope by wires so as to hold their weight before the mold 
is poured; then when the metal tends to float the core, 
the sand bears the stress. In green sand copes, the core 
may be anchored by running a soft iron wire from the 



IOO FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

loop in the core to the top of the cope, then fastening 
firmly to a cross bar or to a rod resting on the cope bars. 
In dry sand copes having heavy cores, the cores are often 
bolted to cross beams by bolts having a hook to enter the 
loop in the core. 

Cores are sometimes of such form or weight as to re- 
quire straps for lowering them into the mold. Heavy 
cores may be set by a crane, when straps are used, which 
bend easily to prevent tearing the sand when being re- 
moved from the mold. 

Chaplets are used for anchoring cores into a mold 
when the cores are of such shape that they are not prop- 
erly supported by the sand. The forms and types of 
these chaplets vary greatly. The two main types are the 
single-headed and the double-headed chaplets, as shown 
in Fig. 56. The simple form of single-headed chaplet 
is shown at a. This has the forged head, having burrs at 
N to secure the chaplet more firmly in the metal. The 
end may be sharp or blunt, to suit the place where it is 
to be used, b shows a stem on which a head of desired 
size and shape may be riveted, d shows the double-end 
forged chaplet. These are made of any desired length 
between outside faces varying by T V °f an inch, c is a 
stem for a double-headed chaplet. Any size or form of 
head may be riveted on to suit particular cases, e shows 
a double-end chaplet and nail. The nail holds the chap- 
let in position before the core rests on it. This assists 
in setting in some cases. The one shown has riveted 
heads, making use of a stem on which the desired heads 
are placed. / gives a form of chaplet made of cast iron. 
This is a cheap double-end chaplet which may be made 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 



IOI 






V~T 



r~™~ — 







P 



^ 




Fig. 56. 



102 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

where it is used, g shows an adjustable double-end 
chaplet. It is threaded into both heads with the stem 
threaded to allow the adjustment. The chaplet and 
stand are shown at h. This enables quick adjustment 
of chaplcts, as the stand is rammed in the drag against 
the pattern ; hence the chaplet may be dropped into place 
when the pattern is removed. A form of spring chaplet 
shown at i may be used to substitute for a double-headed 
chaplet and springs to give the desired distance between 
faces. 

The most common forms of chaplets are those shown 
at a, b, c, and d. There are factories making these of all 
sizes and shapes. They may be purchased at a lower 
cost than they could be made without the use of special 
machinery. 

In using chaplets, a few precautions should be ob- 
served. Chaplets placed in a mold weaken the resulting 
casting in a greater or less degree. It is always prefer- 
able to avoid their use where possible. They weaken the 
casting: first, by introducing a foreign metal into the cast- 
ing, thus destroying the unformitiy of the metal; second, 
by forming blow-holes or porous metal about chaplet; and 
third, by failing to unite with the metal, thus becoming 
loose or leaving a hole in the casting. These evils may 
be greatly reduced by proper design and use. The first 
cannot be avoided, but may be made small by using chap- 
lets of proper size and shape to cause the least possible 
break in the uniformity of the metal. The second may 
be nearly always avoided by proper care in regard to the 
condition of the surface of the chaplet. Moisture on the 
chaplet holds the metal away, causing blow-holes. Rust 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 103 

makes the metal boil and blow, causing porous metal to 
form. The coating on the chaplet must be such that the 
iron will unite with it and lie quiet. Red lead put on 
with benzine makes a good coating. A tinned surface 
gives the best satisfaction for this purpose. 

The third evil may be avoided by so shaping the chap- 
let that the metal will adhere closely and bind itself to 
the chaplet. This may be done by having notches or 
depressions in the stem, as shown at e, Fig. 56, or by barbs 
or burrs, as N on a. In some cases the thickness of the 
metal where the chaplet is placed is not sufficient to 
ensure a firm hold on the chaplet. The thickness should 
be increased around the chaplet by cutting away the sand, 
forming a button having the chaplet in its centre. 

The effective strength or holding power of a chaplet 
is dependent upon the way it is set in the mold and the 
manner of wedging it after the flask is clamped. Many 
castings are lost, due to improper setting of the chaplets. 
The chaplet must have a firm bearing on the core and 
the pressure it is to resist must act directly against its 
length. When so placed that the pressure tends to move 
it sidewise, the resisting power is only that of the sand 
around the chaplet. 

The chaplet set in the drag must come to a bearing 
where it is to remain. Those in the cope extend through 
and are held against the core by wedges or weights from 
above. Where the flask has a bottom board, the chaplets 
set in the drag may be pointed and driven into the bot- 
tom board, as shown at a and d, Fig. 57. The head of the 
chaplet should conform to the shape of the core. If the 
head is not shaped the same as the core at the point of 



io4 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



bearing, the chaplet may cut into the core, thus not 
holding it in the proper position, or the bearing may be 
on one side of the chaplet, which may tip it over. Where 
the sand is very deep below the point where the chaplet is 
to be placed, or there is no bottom board to drive the 
chaplet into, a block may be rammed into the sand, as at 




the base of c. The chaplet must be set vertical, for, if 
slanting, the effect will be that shown at c. This chaplet 
has bearing only at the edge and will hold but little, as 
the sand will crush beside the chaplet, allowing the core 
to move. Where many chaplets of the same length are 
to be set, as in duplicate work, much time may be saved 
by ramming in the mold the chaplet stand shown at b. 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 105 

When the pattern is removed, the chaplet may be placed 
in the stand, thus saving the adjustment of height 
and driving to a firm bearing, as required in previous 
cases. 

There are many other conditions to be considered in 
setting chaplets in the cope. It is best to pass a vent 
wire through the cope at the point where the chaplet is 
to be placed, then gradually increase the size of the rod 
until nearly the size of the chaplet, when it may be pressed 
through the sand. By thus slowly increasing the size 
of the hole, the sand is compressed and not cracked or 
loosened, as may be done when too great a pressure is 
exerted in inserting a large rod or chaplet. The chaplet 
should be drawn out when first inserted and the hole 
reamed, as shown at 0. This avoids the danger of the 
chaplet pulling down the sand around it, as at g, when 
the chaplet is brought to a better bearing or wedged down 
after closing the cope. Where the chaplet bears on the 
slant side of a core, the head should be bent at the same 
angle ns that of the core, as at i, to ensure a firm bearing. 
Where the exact shape of the core is not important, a 
level place may be filed into the core, thus allowing the 
use of a chaplet having the head at right angles to the 
stem. The chaplet must not be placed, as shown at h, 
Fig. 57, for it is liable to slide down the slope, thus tend- 
ing to displace the core or to crush the sand around the 
stem of the chaplet. 

Chaplets may be properly set in the mold and arranged 
so as to give the best service possible, but still be ren- 
dered ineffective by improper wedging. The pressure 
resisted by chaplets may oftentimes be very great, espe- 



106 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

dally in large molds. The wedges must be so placed that 
the pressure may be held without any tendency to move 
the chaplet sidewise. This cannot be done with one 
wedge, as that gives the bearing of the stem onto the slant 
surface. The double wedge, as at m, gives a firm bear- 
ing on a surface at right angles to the stem of the chaplet. 
The taper of the wedges should be very small so as to 
avoid slipping when the pressure is exerted on them. 
Many times the chaplet is too short for using wedges 
alone; then a block must be inserted. This is as good 
as the wedges alone when the surfaces of the block and 
the wedges are kept at right angles to the chaplet. Some 
of the incorrect methods of wedging with a block are 
shown at n, r, and s. At n the single wedge has been 
driven from one side, thus tilting the chaplet so that it is 
liable to move over when the pressure acts against it. The 
single wedge effect is also shown at s. It is a poor plan 
to insert wedges from opposite sides of a block not bear- 
ing on each other, as at r and n. The block is quite liable 
to be tilted or the wedges to loosen at one side, causing 
damage. 

Another improper use of wedges is shown at /. Here 
the wedges are either of different tapers, or so placed that 
the one resting on the chaplet has a bearing only at the 
ends. This may give or the wedge break when the 
pressure is applied. Cast-iron wedges placed in thi s 
manner on heavy work have been broken, thus allowing 
the core to rise. 

Wedges made of hard wood give good satisfaction in 
light work. Wrought and cast iron wedges are more 
reliable and may be used in any case. 






TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 107 

The parts of a mold are held together by properly 
clamping or weighting the cope and cores before cast- 
ing. The stress upon the cope due to the molten metal 
when a flask is poured, is dependent upon many con- 
ditions. The main force is that of the static fluid while 
the metal is still a liquid. A second force, in some 
cases of great magnitude, is that due to the momen- 
tum of the metal when the mold fills and the metal comes 
up in the riser. This force may be inappreciable in many 
cases. In particular cases there appears to be a force 
exerted that cannot be well accounted for, but which 
must be provided against when liable to appear. 

The static, or fluid, pressure on a cope may be cal- 
culated directly. Before giving the method of determin- 
ing the force, let us understand what causes this force. 
The metal when molten is a fluid the same as water, and 
it passes from the fluid state to the solid when the tem- 
perature lowers below its fusion point, the same as water 
becomes ice as soon as it cools below 32 F. or o° C. The 
same laws hold true with each fluid while in the same 
state of fluidity. Since water is better known, let us con- 
sider that we are handling water; then by the change of 
weight we will have the conditions existing in the case of 
molten iron. Any body lighter than water will sink into 
its surface until it has displaced an amount equal to its 
own weight. In order to press the body still further into 
the water a force must be exerted equal to the weight of 
the water displaced. When once the body becomes im- 
mersed only a slight increase of the force will sink it to 
any depth. This additional pressure is small enough so 
it may be neglected in cases that we consider. This 



108 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

gives the action that takes place upon a core that is sur- 
rounded by metal. The pressure exerted upon any sur- 
face by the water is due to the area of the surface and 
the height of the water above that surface. In fluids the 
pressure at any point is equal in all directions and is 
transmitted without loss throughout its entire body. Thus 
if a tank be tight and have a small pipe extending directly 
above it, and it be filled with water until the pipe is partly 
filled, the pressure on any cross-section is the same as 
though the tank extended at its maximum size and were 
filled to the same level as that in the pipe. 

The amount of force necessary to hold down a core 
that is surrounded with iron may be found, since it will 
equal the difference between its weight and that of an 
equal volume of iron. Sand weighs about .06 lbs. per 
cubic inch, and iron weighs .26 pounds. The difference 
between the two is therefore .2 lbs. per cubic inch. By 
finding the volume of the core in cubic inches and multi- 
plying .2 lbs. by this number we have the weight neces- 
sary to hold the core down when the mold is poured. 
If the core has metal partly around it, the pressure will 
be the same as that exerted on the sides of the mold at 
that level. 

The pressure exerted on the cope will be that due to 
the head above the surface of the cope and acting on 
the area of mold which the cope covers. This can be 
more plainly understood by taking a particular case, as 
a plate whose top is 12 in. by 24 in., and having a cope 
16 in. by 24 in. and 6 in. deep. The head on the face of 
the cope will then be 6 inches. The area of the mold is 
12X24, or 288 square inches. The volume of metal 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 109 

which would be equivalent to the pressure is 288X6, or 
1728 cubic inches. Its weight will be 1728 X. 26, or 
499.28 pounds. The weight of the cope will be its volume 
in cubic inches X. 06, the weight of a cubic inch of sand, 
or 26Xi6x6X.o6 = ii3.76 pounds. Therefore the addi- 
tional weight required upon the cope will be 449.28 — 
n3-7 6 = 335-5 2 pounds. 

The magnitude of the force due to momentum cannot 
be calculated and is dependent upon the style of gate 
and rapidity of pouring. If the mold is poured slowly, 
the metal rises slowly and comes up in the riser easily, 
exerting no force of momentum. If, on the other hand, 
the metal is poured in rapidly, and the mold fills quickly, 
the moment of the flowing metal has to be overcome by 
the cope, which stops its flow suddenly. 

The style of gate has a great influence upon the amount 
of the pressure due to momentum. If the metal is 
poured into a basin, the fall of the metal from the ladle 
is broken and the iron enters the gate with but little force. 
Therefore the pressure in the mold will be practically 
that due to a head the height of the metal in the basin. 
When the metal is poured directly into the gate, a much 
greater momentum is attained. The metal falling from 
the ladle into the gate attains a velocity and consequent 
energy which is exerted upon the metal in the gate. 
This gives a pressure almost equivalent to that produced 
by a head the height from which the metal falls. The 
allowance necessary to cover this extra force makes the 
safe weight one-half larger than that calculated for the 
statical head. This will take care of all other force 
not accounted for. 



HO FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Castings are often ruined by putting too great a weight 
upon the cope or by drawing the clamps too tight, thus 
causing a crush in the mold. 

In clamping a cope, the main idea is to hold the flask 
firmly together so it cannot strain at any point, allowing 
the metal to run out. It is not necessary to put great 
pressure on the cope with the clamps in order to hold 
the metal. After the clamp is tight so it cannot give, 
any additional pressure on the clamp is more detrimental 
than beneficial. The clamp should stand nearly straight 
and be tightened onto the wedge with a clamping iron, as 
shown in Fig. 9. Clamps should be placed near enough 
together to avoid straining the flask between them. 

The strength of a clamp throughout its central part 
where the stress is tense may be calculated, allowing 
5000 lbs. per square inch of cross-section for cast iron 
and 15,000 lbs. per square inch for wrought iron. The 
greatest stress on the clamp is at the corner, and that is 
dependent upon the leverage to the bearing point. The 
corner must be greatly reinforced to make it equal to the 
other part. Wrought-iron clamps are usually made by 
bending a bar, which makes them weaker. The force 
they will resist is that necessary to bend the corner. 

The volume of a given weight of iron changes as it 
passes from the liquid to the solid state. This diminution 
of volume upon solidification is called shrinkage. The 
amount of shrinkage varies with the chemical composi- 
tion of the iron. The average shrinkage is an eighth inch 
to one foot in length. This shrinkage is allowed for in 
the patterns by use of the pattern scale, the dimensions of 
which are that amount in excess of the standard scales. 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT m 

The volume also reduces after solidification as the tem- 
perature reduces to that of the atmosphere. This is often 
treated as the contraction of the iron, but it is more sim- 
ple to combine the two and treat it as shrinkage. The 
feeding of large casting is for the purpose of supplying 
metal to the interior of the casting to replace that drawn 
away by the shrinkage after the outer shell has become 
set. 

Many castings are ruined by holes in the casting 
where it should be solid and filled to the form of the pat- 
tern. These holes may be from either or both of two 
causes: first, the casting may blow, or second, the shrink- 
age draws away the metal from a particular point. The 
defects are called blow-holes in the first case and shrink- 
holes in the second. The causes of the first, or blow- 
holes, may be various. It is the gases failing to escape 
from the face of the mold or some core and forcing their 
way through the molten metal, leaving the opening when 
the metal sets. A few causes may be mentioned which 
are most common: too wet sand, too hard ramming, im- 
proper venting of sand or cores, wood or rusty iron 
coming in contact with the molten metal, or faces such 
that the metal will not lie quietly against them. These 
holes are characterized by rough, irregular surfaces, and 
have the appearance of gas enclosed. 

Shrink-holes are caused by the drawing away of the 
metal to replace the shrinkage while solidifying. These 
are caused by failure to supply feeding iron to the heavy 
parts after the surface has set. It may be due to the form 
of the casting or to insufficient feeding when such is 
provided. The point where such a shrink-hole is most 



112 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

liable to be is where there is a break in the regular sur- 
face of the casting, as under a feeding head which was 
of insufficient size, where the gate or riser is cut into 
the casting, where a lighter part of the casting joins to 
the heavier part, or at the top surface when no weak 
point is adjacent. 

These holes are characterized by smooth holes de- 
pressed into the casting with solid bases, or depressions 
in the casting having the appearance of a shell solidify- 
ing in contact with the face of the mold, then drawn 
down by the shrinkage. When the shrink-hole is not at 
the surface it may take a very different appearance. The 
honeycombing at the centre of large castings is due to 
the shrinkage drawing the metal away from the centre 
after the outer shell has become of such strength as to 
resist the shrinkage strains. 

The remedies for such shrink-holes are to make feed- 
ing heads of ample size and feed the casting until the 
shrinkage is provided for, to have the feeder connected to 
the heaviest part of the casting, to supply a feeder where 
the shrink-holes appear, or, when feeding with a rod, to 
keep the feeder open until the casting is set by supplying 
hot iron in the feeding head. 

Burning on, or casting on, is the uniting of two parts 
of a casting or the forming of a new part onto a cast- 
ing. It is the welding of the cast-iron parts. In order 
to form such a weld the face of the casting must be heated 
to a plastic or molten state. This is accomplished by 
pouring hot molten metal over the surface where the 
weld is to be made, until it starts to melt or becomes 
plastic. 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 113 

Often the arms of pulley castings break in cooling. 
When the other parts are sound, the arms may be burned 
together, forming a perfect casting. This is done by 
chipping away the edges of the break so as to expose the 
surfaces of the casting. The pulley is laid onto a sand 
bed so the top of the arm is level. A dry sand core is 
fitted about the arm at the bottom and sides of the break, 
leaving its top entirely exposed. A runner is made to 
lead the overflow away to pig beds. The burning is 
accomplished by pouring a constant stream of metal 
onto the break until the surfaces become plastic or molten. 
The pouring is stopped, leaving the opening between the 
cores filled, which unites the broken surfaces. 

The excess metal is chipped off, giving the repaired 
casting. The progress of the burning can be determined 
by scraping the face with a rod while the metal is being 
poured onto it. When the face of the casting begins to 
melt it can be felt to soften under the rod. When the 
hard spots are felt, the inflowing metal should be directed 
onto them until the entire surface softens, which marks 
the completion of the process. 

The method of casting a piece onto a casting may be 
illustrated by forming a portion of the bracket onto the 
column shown in Fig. 43. Consider the bracket to be 
broken off along the dotted line ab. The column is laid 
on the sand so the face, a, is level. Dry sand cores are 
fitted to enclose the bracket, giving the desired form, with 
the top side, a, open. A small hole is left through the core 
at b. A runner is led from this hole to the pig bed. The 
iron is poured onto the broken surface at the rate the 
opening will allow it to escape. The stream is directed 



114 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

onto different points until the entire surface becomes 
plastic. The opening at b is then closed with a clay ball 
and the bracket filled with metal, which forms the de- 
sired casting. 

Bench molding includes the light work where the 
mold is made upon a bench, and after completion the 
mold is placed upon the floor for casting. The bench is 
so fitted that the sand-pile is under it while shelves are 
attached for holding the tools within convenient reach. 
The bench is moved back over the sand-pile as it is used, 
while the molds are placed in front in a convenient ar- 
rangement for pouring. The molder, being in a stand- 
ing position, is more comfortable and can produce more 
molds than on the floor in a stooping position. 

The snap-flask is especially suited to this class of work. 
Individual flasks of small sizes are also used on the 
bench. The flasks are of such sizes that they may be 
handled easily from the bench to floor after the mold is 
finished. Ordinarily the individual flask should not ex- 
ceed 1 6 inches square. 

Bench molding is used extensively in brass foundries. 
The sand is mixed and tempered in a box or trough 
within convenient reach of the bench. 

Most patterns have the lines of parting at different 
levels at different parts of the pattern. In these cases, 
if the pattern were laid on a plain board, the molder 
would be obliged to cut away the sand to the line of 
parting of pattern and slick the surface for the parting 
of the mold. To avoid this loss of time, a special follow- 
board is made which conforms to the pattern and forms 
the desired parting surface on the drag. 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 115 

A match is a follow-board made from new sand rammed 
hard, core mixtures, or any convenient material that will 
maintain its shape firmly. A match is often made for 
the present use for a special order. With standard pat- 
terns the match is made permanent and goes with the 
pattern. A permanent match may be cheaply made of 
core mixtures. The preferable mixture is that of linseed 
oil and fine sand, because it holds its shape firmly and is 
not affected by dampness. 

When there are not enough castings to be made from 
a pattern to pay to shape a special follow-board, and the 
pattern projects into the cope, it is often desirable to 
make a match of green sand in the cope with the pattern 
at its proper location. The drag is rammed up in its 
position on the cope. When turned over the cope is re- 
moved, the sand is cleared away, and the parting of the 
drag is prepared for ramming the cope. 

A plain board is used as a turn-over or follow-board 
with patterns having plain surfaces or the parting nearly 
in the plane of the face of the drag. 

Molding machines are for the purpose of expediting 
the operation of molding. The term molding machine 
does not mean that the machine will do the work of 
forming a mold. Molding machines may be classified 
under three general heads: first, the machine for me- 
chanically drawing the pattern; second, the molding 
press; and, third, the machine with press and mechanical 
drawing of the pattern. 

In the first class of machine, the sand is rammed by 
hand in the usual manner. When ready to be removed 
from the machine, the pattern is drawn down by median- 



n6 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 




o 
En 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 



117 



ical means, usually a lever or rack and pinion. The pat- 
tern is drawn through a stripping plate, which prevents 
the sand from tearing and makes possible the perform- 
ing of the operation more rapidly. The hand is unsteady 
and cannot hold the pattern so as to move it out of the 
mold perpendicular to its face; hence it takes much time 
and skill to draw the pattern without tearing the mold. 




Fig. 59. 

This type of machine is suited to a wide range of cast- 
ings. Many manufacturers of molding machines are 
fitted to build a machine for a very great variety of pat- 
terns. One machine of this class is shown in Fig. 58. It 
is for making pulleys of any desired size and width of 
face up to about 44 in. diameter with 24 in. face. The 
range for each machine is about 12 in. on the diameter; 



n8 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



i.e., a machine will make all sizes from 6 in. to 18 in. in 
diameter. The changeable parts are the pattern ring, the 




arms, and the stripping plates for each size, as shown in 
Fig. 58. The cope and drag are rammed on the same 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 



II 9 



machine, and the pins are so arranged that the joint 
comes together correctly when the flask is closed. 

The machine shown in Fig. 59 is one of a great variety 




Fig. 61, 



of machines which are for a special casting. One ma- 
chine forms the cope while the other forms the drag. 
These two machines are combined in one for some pat- 



120 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



terns; then each flask contains two castings. Special 
flasks are required for all this type of machine. 
The second class of machine performs the operation of 




c 

fa 



ramming the sand in the flask, while all the other opera- 
tions are performed by hand. Fig. 60 represents a press 
molding machine, or "squeezer." The machine fulfills 
the offices of the bench used in bench molding, and also 



TOOLS, MACHINES, AND EQUIPMENT 



121 



has the presscr head which compresses the sand into the 
flask instead of ramming by hand. The work handled on 
these machines is the same as that done on the bench 
The snap-flask is used on all small machines. 




Fig. 63. 

Fig. 61 represents a press molding machine having 
pneumatic connections. The pattern is loosened by the 
vibrator frame when the cope is ready to be lifted. 

Fig. 62 shows a multiple mold made by the use of a 
press molding machine and the casting that is obtained 



122 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

from the mold. This secures the making of a great num- 
ber of molds on a small floor space. 

The third class of molding machine performs the op- 
eration of ramming and drawing the pattern. Fig. 63 
shows such a machine for making ells, as shown at the 
bottom of the figure. The presser head conforms to the 
pattern, leaving the cope as shown after the sand has been 
compressed. Before compressing the sand into the flask, 
the sand frame is placed upon the flask and filled to its 
top. The degree of hardness due to the press is de- 
pendent upon the depth of this sand frame. After strik- 
ing off and venting, the flask is lifted off from the pattern 
by the lift lever, thus mechanically drawing the pattern. 
The pattern board forms the stripping plate. 

These machines are made for many special patterns 
and are claimed to give good results; and they very much 
reduce the cost of making the mold. 






CHAPTER IV 

CORES, CORE BOXES, CORE MACHINES, AND DRYING 

OVENS 

Cores are bodies of sand in the mold for forming in- 
terior openings or holes in the casting. They may be 
made of green sand, dry sand, or loam. Some patterns 
are of such form that the core is formed by the pattern. 
Generally the core is made separate from the mold and 
placed into it. When made in green sand it maintains 
the shape more accurately than dry sand, as the core is 
often distorted in drying. It requires more skill and time 
to form green sand cores than dry sand, hence the dry 
sand is used when the core is not simple or easily made in 
green sand. 

Dry sand cores may be made in a great variety of 
shapes to suit any case. They are made strong enough 
to resist the pressure of the metal, and may be anchored 
so as to be almost surrounded by metal, leaving an opening 
through which the gases escape. The use of cores greatly 
simplifies molding in many cases. They may be used to 
stop off portions of the pattern, to prevent the necessity 
of many parts to the flask, to form irregularities and 
pockets that would be difficult to make with the pattern, 
and to form parts of molds instead of using a pattern, as 
in pit molding. 

123 



124 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

A dry sand core is any form made in sand mixtures, 
dried until hard to allow handling, and used to form part 
of a mold. These cores may be made in any form from 
the plain to the very intricate and irregular cores required 
in some castings. When properly dried, the core be- 
comes hard so it may be handled, and may be anchored 
by use of chaplets when necessary. The binder used in 
the mixture holds the sand together so that shapes may 
be easily made which would be very difficult to form in 
green sand. Dry sand cores may be made strong enough 
to support the sand of portions of a mold or to resist great 
pressures from the metal. 

The proper venting of cores is a necessity. All core 
mixtures have a binder which holds the sand together 
when dried. This binder burns out when in contact with 
the molten iron, giving off gases which greatly increases 
that in the new sand used in the core. This formation 
of gas must have free relief within the core to prevent its 
forcing its escape through the metal. All mixtures for 
cores must be sufficiently open to give free passage for 
the gases. 

Cores having metal against one face only will not re- 
quire any special vents. Small round cores require a 
vent through the centre. This should extend throughout 
its length. Cores having one face not covered by the 
metal may be vented to this face by a vent wire to give 
the necessary relief to the gases. 

When the core is large or not easily vented, coke, 
cinders, stones, or any very open material is placed in 
the core to collect the gases, which are led off by an open- 
ing to the outside. Straight cores may be vented by rods 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 125 

placed in the box when ramming the core. Crooked cores 
are vented by many methods. When large enough to use 
coke without weakening the core, the vent may be led 
out by placing coke through the centre of the crooked 
part to lead to the vent opening. Small crooked cores 
may be vented in many ways. A roll of paraffine laid 
through the core when rammed will melt and run out 
when the core is dried, giving the desired vent. Straight 
vents may be made to the bent portion of a core, and after 
drying these are connected by cutting away the core and 
laying in a string through one vent and extending into 
the other, then covering with new molding sand or core 
mixture to re-form the shape. The desired vent is left 
when the string is drawn out. 

Core sand will admit of hard ramming without caus- 
ing trouble when used. When rammed hard, the core 
will be stronger. The only precaution is to have the sand 
left sufficiently open to give free vent. All ramming must 
be done with the pein rammer until the last surface is 
reached, when it is butted off. If the butt is used be- 
tween the layers while filling a box, the surface made will 
not unite with the sand rammed on top, which makes a 
weak place in the core. If the sand is too wet, it should 
not be rammed so hard, for the pores close easier and 
form a solid cake, which will blow when used in the mold. 

Cores may be greatly strengthened by putting wires 
and rods into them. The sand adheres to the rods so 
closely that it cannot be pulled out even from a short 
core. This strengthens the core far more than the sim- 
ple bending of the rod, because it causes a tension in the 
rod, due to a tendency to elongate in an arc of a circle 



126 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

whose centre is at the surface of the core. This action 
is effective only to the amount necessary to crush the core 
at that centre. Small cores needing but little strength 
do not require rods. The strength due to the dry sand is 
sufficient where there is not much pressure or weight to 
be borne. 

The rods necessary for a core depend upon the weight 
of the core and the strength it must have. Many cores 
are of such size or shape that they would not bear their 
own weight without rodding. Small and thin cores may 
be sufficiently rodded by heavy wire. All oil cores, except 
very small ones, should have rods to hold them to shape 
while green and to give extra strength when dried. The 
oil will adhere to the rod so that it becomes so firmly 
fixed that the core will break a wire before loosening from 
it. Larger cores are rodded in all directions so as to tie 
the whole together firmly. The rods are bent to conform 
to the desired shape. 

Many cores require to be hung in the cope. These 
must have hooks or loops in them for their support. 
Other cores require the loop for handling or setting them 
into the mold. The loop is made of wire or rods of the 
necessary strength and is placed in the desired position in 
the core. Except when the core is small, the loop is an- 
chored in the core by cross rods so placed as to brace the 
entire core from the loop. This gives strength to the core 
and makes the loop capable of bearing the weight. 

Large, heavy cores cannot be safely rodded by loose, 
separate rods, as they do not give sufficient strength. 
Special anchors, bars, or core irons are used in these 
cases. These core irons may be of cast iron, of wrought 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 127 

iron welded together, or may have cast-iron bodies with 
wrought-iron parts. These are so shaped as to carry the 
entire core firmly from the core iron. The hooks or nuts 
for screw eyes are made solid to the core iron for hand- 
ling. When the core has a large body part, loose bars 
and rods are used to bind the whole to the core iron. In 
many cases the iron in it weighs more than the sand. 

Many cores are made in two or more parts and are 
pasted together after drying. This is done in order to 
give a form to the core that will hold its shape before 
drying. Large round cores will sag and deform while 
green if made full, supported on a side. When made in 
halves the support comes upon the flat side, giving suf- 
ficient strength to maintain its shape. The making of 
cores in halves greatly simplifies the boxes used and gives 
the largest face outward to work from in making the core. 

The halves are pasted together after drying, to form 
the complete core. The paste used must be sufficiently 
strong to hold the core when handled, when set in the 
mold, and when the mold is poured. Wheat or rye flour 
wet with water to an even mixture forms a strong paste 
for this purpose. Graham flour, buckwheat flour, and 
fine meal each makes a paste that may be smoother but 
not so strong as wheat flour. 

In pasting a core the halves must come to a close bear- 
ing all over the surface of the joint. When the joint 
surface is warped or irregular, the halves may be rubbed 
together until a good bearing is obtained. When large 
or very irregular, the high places may be filed off or 
rubbed down with a brick. In some cases the halves are 
slightly thick, causing the core to be elliptical when pasted. 



I2 8 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Therefore a core should be measured with a caliper, and" 
when too thick the joint should be rubbed down until 
the proper thickness is obtained. 

The sand and dust on the joint must be brushed off 
before putting on the paste, as the dust takes up the paste 
and prevents the solid joint desired. The paste should 
be spread over the portion forming the joint; the core is 
then put together and rubbed slightly, with pressure to 
give close union to the parts. 

In pasted cores, the vent is taken off at the joint by 
cutting gutters in the joint surface and leading off through 
the print portion. These gutters must be kept open 
when the core is pasted. Sometimes it is advisable to 
lay into the gutter a rod, a string, or anything that may 
be drawn out after pasting. 

The paste must be dried in order to give it strength. 
If pasted while hot, the core will dry the paste. When 
pasted cold, the core should be put in the oven until 
dried. 

If the core is properly pasted and dried, the joint will 
be as strong as any part of the core outside of the rods or 
anchors. 

All cores are baked or dried to drive off the moisture 
and harden the core. If a core is heated too much or 
left in the oven after it is dry, the binder burns out, leav- 
ing the soft burnt sand which crumbles and cannot be 
used. When a core is dry it will give a clear ring when 
tapped with a stick or hammer. A conven ent tool for 
sounding a core is the handle of a trowel. If the core is 
only partly dry the ring will be deadened. 

Cores may also be tested for dryness by the odor. 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 129 

When green the flour, or binder, gives an odor similar to 
sour dough. When dry, no steam nor odor of green 
binder can be detected. 

The ovens for drying cores are of various kinds, chiefly 
using direct heat, although some have indirect heat. The 
indirect heat process is where the fire is in a separate 
chamber about the oven where the cores are dried. The 
direct heat process is to have the fire so placed that the 
heat and smoke pass directly through the oven into the 
chimney. 

By indirect heating, the intensity of the heat is more 
nearly even throughout the oven. By direct, the upper 
part is always much hotter than the lower part. By direct 
heating, the chimney flue opens from the lower part of 
the oven at the end opposite the fire. This draws the 
cooler air from the bottom, which must be replaced by 
the hotter air from the upper part or from the fire; thus 
it distributes the heat more evenly and reduces the loss 
of heat passing into the chimney. 

The ovens for small cores are fitted with shelves, upon 
which the plates of cores may be placed. These are so 
arranged as to be convenient and accessible while the 
oven is hot. A convenient form of oven for small cores is 
shown in Fig. 64. In this oven the shelves are of the 
form of a semicircle hung at its centre. A door is fitted 
to each side, thus closing the oven when the shelf is 
swung out or in. 

The common forms of core ovens have the shelves 
fixed within the oven. The cores are placed upon the 
shelves through a door that opens in front of the shelves, 
or the oven is so arranged that the coremaker may go 



13° 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



inside the oven to the shelves arranged about in it. The 
ovens have the coke fire at one end while the gases are 







Fig. 64. 



drawn off near the bottom at the opposite end. This 
arrangement distributes the heat as evenly as possible, 
but great variation is noted at various points of the oven. 
The shelves at the top nearest the fire are very hot, while 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 



131 



the ones that are low at the opposite end are not hot 
enough to dry a core. This distribution of heat is often 





Fig. 65. 

of advantage, as those cores which must be dried quickly 
or slightly burned, as oil cores, may be placed on the 




Fig. 66. 



hottest shelves, while other cores may be best dried in 
cooler portions of the oven. Cores that are replaced 



132 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



in the oven for drying the blacking or the paste may best 
be placed in the coolest parts of the oven. 

Fig. 65 shows an elevation and a sectional view of an 
oven for small cores. Fig. 66 gives detail of the same, 




Fig. 67. 

showing its operation. The shelves for the cores are 
mounted on wheels at the back and are carried at the 
front by the trolley, while the shelf is drawn out. Each 
shelf has its door at front and at back, so that the oven is 
closed when the shelf is out or in. Any one may be 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 



*33 



drawn out by hooking the trolley to the handle, as in the 
case of the one in Fig. 66. The whole number may be 
drawn at once if so desired. 

A form of oven used extensively in shops making a 
special line of castings is one having a core-truck with 
shelves fitted for the special cores used. The truck is 
drawn out of the oven while it is loaded or unloaded, and 
is replaced in the oven while drying the cores. A form 



a 



3 



Fig. 68. 



of such a truck is shown in Fig. 67. The oven for this 
purpose has its interior dimensions to suit the size of 
truck and its front end is fitted with some form of door 
that may be opened for removing the truck. The fire is 
made below the floor line at the back end of the oven and 
the gases drawn off at the front end near the bottom of 
the oven. A simple form of truck, or core car, is shown 
in Fig. 68. This is suited to large cores of any form. 
It is of advantage in jobbing shops having heavy cast- 
ings, because the cores there used vary greatly in size 



J 34 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



and form. These may be decked by placing rests on the 
platform and laying bars across. 

The mixture for a core may vary greatly to suit par- 
ticular conditions and different sands. The amount of 
binder necessary is that which will form a hard core when 
dry and which will not be too close, nor burn out, allow- 
ing the metal to enter into the core forming roughness 
on the casting. 

The mixture given in Receipt No. i is well adapted 
to small cores made on the bench. With some sands 
this percentage may be increased. With large cores, the 
percentage may be reduced to that of i part flour to 12 
parts sharp sand. 

The core may be strengthened in heavy work by mix- 
ing a percentage of new molding sand with the sharp 
sand. The mixture given in Receipt No. 4 gives a 
strong core for large work, as arm cores for fly wheels, 

etc. 

When a core is nearly surrounded by metal, it is neces- 
sary to have a strong core with as little enclosed gas as 
possible. Receipt No. 2 forms a core which is very strong 
and which may be easily vented since it is nearly an oil 
core. This mixture while green will not have much 
strength, so that it may be difficult to dry without its 
losing the form desired. By adding a small percentage 
of flour, the green core has more strength and has as 
much strength when dry. 

Receipt No. 3 will give a hard oil core which has great 
strength for its size and will not blow when the metal 
covers the greater percentage of it. This is of greatest 
value in making thin split cores. The core should be 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 135 

slightly burned after drying to give an open texture 

without injuring its strength. 

The mixture given in Receipt No. 5 is for making cores 

by the machine. The proportions may be varied to give 

the best core with the easiest operation of the machine. 

If the sand is too wet or has too much flour, it will stick 

to the tube, thus clogging the machine. If too dry, the 

machine will not compress the sand sufficiently to give a 

strong core. These cores are improved by burning 

slightly while drying. 

Receipt No. 1. — 6 parts fine sharp sand, 1 part flour, wet 
with water. Vary the above, to suit conditions, to 
12 parts sand to 1 part flour. 

Receipt No. 2. — 2 parts fine sharp sand, 1 part new mold- 
ing sand. To 75 parts of mixture add 1 part of linseed 
oil or core compound. 

Receipt No. 3. — Add oil to the sharp sand until it becomes 
saturated, or will show slightly on the finger-nail when 
pressed into the sand. 

Receipt No. 4.-3 parts of sharp sand, 1 part new mold- 
ing sand, 1 part flour to 8 parts of the mixture. Wet 
with water. 

Receipt No. 5. — 10 parts of medium grade sharp sand, 
1 part flour. To 75 parts of mixture add 1 part linseed 
oil. Moisten with water until the whole adheres. 
The face of the core which is to be covered with iron 

is coated with blacking to give a smooth face and prevent 

fusion with the sand. 

The mixtures of blacking for dry sand molds give a 

very good mixture for large cores. Cheaper mixtures 

give good results on small cores. The simplest blacking 



136 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



is the prepared coke blacking or black lead mixed with 
water ot the desired thickness. A better mixture for 
light cores may be made by use of the following receipt: 
Mix 6 parts charcoal blacking and 1 part graphite. Wet 
with molasses water or sour beer. 

Hay or straw is twisted into ropes in order to form 
an open band which may be placed where it gives 
strength in holding the sand, besides providing a free 
escape for the gases. It is used chiefly in loam work, 




Fig. 69. 

or in cores where the core barrel is used. It is some- 
times used in molds to provide a vent passage from parts 
of the mold. 

The rope is made by twisting by hand or by the use of 
a hay-rope twisting machine. Fig. 69 shows a machine 
for twisting hay rope and winding the rope upon a reel 
for convenience in handling. 

Long round cores are often made upon a core barrel 
to give them strength and to lessen the amount of core 
sand necessary to make the core. The barrel is a pipe of 
wrought or cast iron, having holes through its surface to 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 137 

allow the free escape of the gases from the outside to the 
inside of the barrel. When made of cast iron, the outer 
face has projections and unevenness for holding the core 
sand to the barrel. Wrought-iron barrels may be the 
plain pipe with vent holes drilled through at frequent in- 
tervals. 

The core barrel is used for making the centre core for 
columns, pipes, cylinders, and round cores of that type. 
The core made on the core barrel is much lighter and 
easier to handle than a solid sand core. The barrel gives 
the core greater strength than the rods, especially in cores 
of small diameter. The amount of core mixture used to 
make the core will be that necessary to form a shell over 
the barrel, while the other core must be solid. The 
saving of core mixture is often worthy of consideration. 

In order to form a core on a core barrel, the barrel is 
wrapped with hay or straw rope, then covered with loam 
or core mixture to give the desired diameter. The barrel 
is placed upon supports at each end and fitted with a 
crank so that it may be rotated. This mechanism with 
the strike o." sweep for forming the face of the core is 
called a core lathe. The end supports may be a frame 
having a notch in the upper side for holding the barrel or 
centre shaft which supports the barrel. The frame ex- 
tends horizontally to support the sweep. The barrel is 
placed upon the supports and rotated by the crank, while 
the coremaker guides the hay rope onto it until the de- 
sired length is covered. The surface is then covered with 
the core sand and compressed to give the necessary 
strength. The sweep is placed upon the supports and 
the surface swept up by rotating the barrel. The sweep 



138 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



is moved toward the axis until the desired diameter of 
core is formed, when the surface is slicked ready for dry- 
ing. 

The procedure in making cores varies to quite an ex- 
tent in particular cases. The general principles always 
apply and the variations are mainly in rodding, venting, 
and mixture of sand best suited to the special core de- 
sired. As it is impossible to give examples and explana- 
tion to cover every case, a few examples are given to 
illustrate the principal methods of making cores. 



TJ 



IT 



L-J L-J 




Fig. 70. 



All small cores that do not require rodding are made 
by ramming the box full of the core mixture and venting 
toward the print side of the core. It is then ready to put 
on the plate for drying. 

Fig. 70 shows a box for making a round core. The 
method of making such a core is here given. The two 
parts of the box are clamped together and placed on end 
upon a smooth board or plate. Some core sand is placed 
in the box, then the vent wire is pressed into the centre. 
The sand is rammed around the vent wire with any con- 
venient rod. This form of core will stand to be rammed 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 139 

quite hard. The ramming is continued while the sand 
is added in small amounts until the box is full. The top 
is slicked even with the box and the vent wire withdrawn. 
The box is inverted and the lower end slicked even with 
the box if it were not so left by the piece it rested upon. 
The clamps are removed from the box. The core is 
loosened by rapping the box on the sides. 

Half of the box is lifted off from the core, leaving it in 
the lower half. This is turned out upon the plate by the 
follow ng method. Place the part containing the core on 
the plate. With the ringers of both hands gently resting 
on the core, raise the box with the thumbs so that it turns 
over until the fingers nearly touch the plate. Gradually 
withdraw the fingers, allowing the core to slide down to 
the plate evenly and gently. The core may be moved by 
placing a straight side of the box against it and moving 
the box until the core is in the desired place. 

The object of placing the vent wire before ramming 
is to keep it in the centre of the core. When the core is 
short, it may be quicker to ram the box full, then press 
the vent wire through, using care to keep it in the centre. 
When the core is long and must bear a pressure it should 
have a rod put in while ramming. Many core-makers 
press the rod in after ramming the core by running the 
vent wire through first. This is a very poor plan, as the 
sand may be loose around the rod, so that it does not 
strengthen the core, or it may close the vent, causing 
trouble in that way. In order that a rod should strengthen 
a core, it must be solid into the sand as a part of it. 

Many cores are made in a skeleton box with a strike 
or former. This form of box is very cheap to make and 



140 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



a core may be readily made in it. Fig. 71 shows such a 
box with its strike. This makes one-half of the core, 




Fig. 71. 



which when pasted forms the core shown in Fig. 72. 
This core is 18 in. in diameter at the base, 4 in. at the 




Fig. 72. 

top, and 30 in. long. The core rests on prints at each 
end, and must be sufficiently strong at the small end to 
sustain the weight of the core when placed in the mold. 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 141 

The box is placed upon a plate having a smooth face. 
A little dry sand is sprinkled over the plate to prevent the 
core from sticking to it. Core sand is then filled in to a 
depth of about two inches. A rod about 26 inches long is 
wet with paste and placed in the centre of the box and 
bedded into the sand. Sand is then filled in and rammed 
with the pein until it is nearly of the required size. The 
last sand is butted onto the surface, making a solid core 
to strike off. A few vents are directed to the centre of 
the lower side from the larger portions of the core. 

The face of the core is struck off by maintaining the 
notch A against the end of the box and always keeping 
the face of the strike directed radially to the centre line 
of the core. The surface is slicked and brought to an 
even smooth surface. The box is then drawn from the 
core. 

The second half is made in the same manner. The 
two halves are blackened with a medium thick mixture 
of the blacking and are put in the oven and dried. They 
are then placed together and rubbed to give a good bear- 
ing. The two ends should be tried with a caliper for the 
correct diameter. When too large, the core should be 
rubbed down until the proper diameter is reached. The 
halves are then taken apart and the vent gutter is cut 
through the centre the full length of the core and on both 
halves. This should connect the vents previously made 
through the body of the green core. The sand and dust 
are removed from the face of the joint and paste is put 
upon one-half of the core. The paste should be strung 
along in a thick, narrow row midway between the edge 
and the vent gutter. If spread thin over the surface it 



142 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

may not give contact at a portion of the face. When put 
on thick, it squeezes out when the core is put together and 
makes a firm joint. Care must be taken to prevent 
filling the vent gutter with paste when the core is put 
together, thus closing the vent passage. 

The half without the paste is then placed upon the 
other and the two pressed together with a little rubbing 
to force the excess of paste out of the joint. The open- 
ings still left at the joint on the sides of the core should 
be filled with stiff blacking if small, but when large pieces 
may have broken off, the interior surface is covered with 
paste and core mixture is pressed in to fill to the desired 
surface. The face of the joint may be smoothed by 
going over with wet blacking on a swab or brush. After 
the paste and blacking are dried, the core is ready for 
use in the mold. 

The skeleton box and strike may be made use of under 
greatly varying conditions. Whenever there is a core or 
portion of a core that may be struck into the desired form 
with a strike, the skeleton box may be made use of. The 
most general use is found in making round cores, espe- 
cially large sizes. The strike in this case is straight. 
The strike or former is also used to move lengthwise of 
the core instead of crosswise or around the core. In 
making cores for water-pipe specials, as ells, tees, etc., 
a former is made of the desired semicircumference, and 
the core is shaped by guiding upon the skeleton box or 
upon a core plate made to the desired outline. 

The head stock core, shown in Fig. 24, is made in a 
half box, having loose pieces to form the recesses for the 
bearings. The halves are made the opposite way by 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 143 

having reversible parts to the one box or by having two 
separate boxes. The preferable way is to have the one 
frame with the loose piece to make the desired parts. 
This core is thick enough to have the necessary strength 
without rodding. The box is filled about four inches with 
core sand and rammed with a small pein rammer. The 
loose pieces are put in place and the core sand is bedded 
under and around them, care being used to ram it suffi- 
ciently and to keep the pieces in their proper position. 
The remainder of the box is filled, rammed, and butted 
off. The face is struck off and surfaced with the trowel 
even with the top of the box. Vent gutters are cut to 
lead off at the print side. Slant vents are directed from 
the gutter under the loose pieces and into the body por- 
tions of the core. The loose pieces are then drawn from 
the box. The face is slicked, if necessary, then the open- 
ing is filled with molding sand of the usual temper for 
molding. This supports the overhanging portion of the 
core while it is green and is easily removed when dry. 

A core plate is placed on the box and the box is turned 
over, holding the two firmly together. The box is rapped 
on all sides, then drawn vertically with light rapping on 
the outside of the box. The core is slicked, then damp- 
ened on the face with water and placed in the oven for 
drying. The face of the core is dampened to form a 
harder skin when the core is dried. If too much water 
is put on at any spot, it washes away the binder, leaving 
the face soft and rough with loose sand. The water may 
best be sprinkled on the core by wetting a brush and 
throwing the water from it by holding the hand and 
striking the brush against it with the other, so that the jar 



144 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



throws the water. With a little practice the core may be 
dampened just as desired by this method. A more con- 
venient method of dampening the core is by use of the 
spray can or spraying bellows. 

The core is blackened, pasted, and finished as in the 
previous case, giving the completed core desired. 

A simple form of core using a special anchor may 
be found in making a large round core for a cylinder. 
Fig. 73 shows an anchor for half of a core for a cylinder 







= 






-• 






■ 






































© 






© 




































. 


J L 






J 


L 














Fig. 73. 

48 in. in diameter. The anchor was made for a skeleton 
box. 

The method of making the core may be explained 
briefly as follows: The box is placed upon a smooth, 
even plate easily accessible to the drying oven. The 
core sand is riddled evenly over the surface enclosed by 
the box to a thickness of about one inch. The anchor is 
coated with flour paste or clay wash and placed in posi- 
tion within the box. When the anchor is light it should 
be rapped down, then tucked all around to ensure an even, 
hard core under the anchor. The core sand is filled in 
and peined firmly. Each layer should be but 3 or 4 in. 
in thickness. After the anchor is covered to a thickness 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 145 

of about 2 in., the core is vented, leading toward the 
centre. A bed of coke is laid through the centre about 
10 in. wide and 5 in. deep. Long rods are laid in near 
the wrought-iron bands to firmly tie the sand between 
them. Rods are placed at the outer rim at intervals of 
2 or 3 in. as the core is rammed. This size of core must 
be very solid in order to have sufficient strength to carry 
its own weight. 

While ramming, it saves time to fasten pieces onto the 
outside of the frame of the box to hold the core to the 
desired form. Without the pieces on the sides, the sand 
will crush out or expand at the bottom while ramm'ng on 
the upper portion of the core. When the ramming is 
completed, the pieces are taken off the side and the entire 
core is vented to the coke centre. It is then struck off 
and the surface slicked to a smooth, even face. This 
anchor is provided with nuts into which screw eyes are 
placed for handling the core. The screw eyes are left in 
while ramming the core. The rods must be kept at least 
an inch from the screw eye, so that they will not be 
loosened when the screw eye is removed. 

The box may be taken from the core and the remainder 
of the core is slicked. W 7 et blacking is put evenly over 
the surface. The blacking should be as thick as will 
spread readily and evenly. The core is then ready to 
dry. 

The other half has the nuts in the anchor offset from 
those in the first half, so that openings may be left through 
the entire half directly over the nuts in the previous one. 
W T hen the core is together finished, the screw eyes are 
fastened into the lower half of the core. The second half 



146 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

is made the same as the first, except that round sticks 
are placed exactly in the position of the nuts of the 
first half. 

The core should be pasted while one-half is hot in 
order to dry the paste. The crack at the parting is filled 
with hard blacking or core sand, then coated with black- 
ing and dried by replacing in the oven or by a fire built 
around the core. 

The same core may be made in many other ways, de- 
pendent upon the appliances available. The principles 
are similar in making all cores having special anchors. 
All large cores must have special frames or anchors to 
give them strength. The forms of these anchors and the 
fitting for handling are nearly as various as the different 
cores in which they are used. 

In many cases the core is nearly submerged in iron 
when the mold is poured. These cores must be made 
so as to give very free vent to the gases in order to prevent 
blowing in some part. Where the core is large enough 
to easily collect the gases at its centre and lead them off 
through the print, the core may be made very similar to 
other cores. When the core is thin or so shaped that 
proper venting is difficult to obtain, the mixture should 
be such as to give a hard core with as little gas as pos- 
sible. 

The core shown in Fig. 74 is for forming a pocket in a 
crank disk which will be filled with lead as the counter- 
weight for balancing the engine. The core here shown 
is a semicircular segment whose inner radius is 10 in. 
and outer radius 21 J inches. The thickness is 3 in. with 
four openings on one side 2 J in. in diameter. This core 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 147 

is surrounded by metal, except the openings through 
which the vent is led off. 

To make this core, the mixture given in Receipt No. 2 
proved very satisfactory. Procure four pieces of wrought- 
iron pipe 1 in. or 1} in. in diameter and 4 in. long. 
Burr out one end so that the pipe bulges bell-shaped. 
Cover the pipe well with linseed oil, then place in the 
centre of each print or opening and fill in with the core 
sand. This pipe extends to the centre of the core where 
the gases are led off. The entire box is filled in a little 
o\er an inch in depth with the core sand and rammed. 




C 



[Z 



Fig. 74. 

Wires are laid in to bind the core. These wires should 
be of such a size as to hold the core and still be easy to 
remove from the casting through these small openings 
of 2\ in. in diameter. These wires are laid in lengthwise 
of the core, placing one near the outer circle and one near 
the inner, while one is placed about an inch away from 
the pipes on either side of it. The wires are bedded 
into the sand now in the box. Sand is filled in to the 
level of the top of the vent pipe. 

Vent gutters are laid out just inside of the outer wires, 
with a similar one through the centre to connect the vent 
pipes. Cross gutters connect the ends and join the outer 



148 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

gutter at each of the pipes, and similarly midway between 
the vent pipes. These gutters are made to a depth of 
about J inch below the centre. Fine coke is laid in the 
gutter to a depth of about 1 inch. The cohe taken is 
that which will pass through a No. 2 riddle and will not 
pass through a No. 6. The coke is then covered with 
coarse sharp sand or fine gravel to prevent the core sand 
filling up the openings between the coke. This should 
bring the sand above the top of the pipes. The pipes 
should be filled with waste or anything to prevent the 
sand from filling them, and the waste may be removed 
after the core is finished. The top of the pipes is cov- 
ered with coke to connect freely with the vent gutters. 
This is covered with sand the same as the gutters. Core 
sand is filled in to the top of the gutters and rammed. 
Cross wires are laid at distances of about 4 or 5 inches to 
bind the core together. A little more sand is filled in 
over the entire surface of the box and long rods laid in as 
before. The remainder of the box is filled and rammed. 
The top is struck off even with the box and the face 
slicked smooth with the trowel. Parting sand or dry 
sharp sand is dusted over the face to prevent its sticking 
to the plate. A straight plate is clamped onto the core 
box and turned over, when the box may be removed 
giving the core as desired. 

Oil or core compound readily bakes onto a plate so as 
to stick the core to it. When making these cores, some- 
thing must be put onto the plates to prevent the oil from 
fastening to the plates. Other cores separate readily 
from the plates after drying. 

The round cores of various sizes are used in so many 



CORES, MACHINES, AND DRYING OVENS 1 49 



iiltat***- *:■***« 







.- 



150 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

different castings that all foundries keep a supply of each 
size in stock. These' may be cut to the length desired in 
any case. This is a much cheaper method than making 
special cores for each pattern used. The boxes for cores 
up to 4 in. in diameter are made similarly to those shown 
in Fig. 70, and of a standard length. 

Machines have been invented for making these stock 
cores which greatly reduces the cost of labor. These 
machines are made with changeable parts for making 
cores up to about 3 in. in diameter. There are several 
manufactories making machines for this purpose. The 
hammer core machine shown in Fig. 75 is fitted to make 
cores from | in. to 3 in. in diameter. The mixture is 
placed in the hopper and, by turning the crank wheel, 
is forced through the tube of the desired size by a bit 
directly back of the tube. These give a core vented in 
the centre throughout its length and of an even hardness. 
The ramming is dependent upon the friction of the 
sand on the tube through which the core passes. 

The mixture that makes a very good core is one with 
oil and flour as a binder. 



CHAPTER V 

CUPOLAS, BLOWERS, AND MELTING FURNACES FOR IRON 

There are two types of furnace most generally used 
for remelting cast iron in the foundry. The reverbera- 
tory furnace is used in places where soft grades of fuel 
are plentiful and where special grades of iron are neces- 
sary. This type will be explained later. The cupola is 
most generally used and regarded as the most economical 
furnace. 

Fig. 76 shows an elevation and section of a Newton 
cupola which illustrates the general type and its con- 
struction. The shell is built up of iron or steel plates 
riveted together. This is lined with fire-brick to enable 
it to withstand the heat. The lining is of the same diam- 
eter from the charging door to the bottom. The bottom is 
fitted with doors which cover the entire diameter of the 
cupola so as to allow a free fall for the droppings at the 
end of each heat. On small cupolas up to about 30 in. 
in diameter, a single door is used. In most cases up to 
72 in. the door is double, swinging from the centre line. 
In larger ones the door is made in more parts. 

The tapping hole or breast is located above the bot- 
tom at a height to allow the sand covering to be put upon 
the bottom doors for holding the molten metal and for 
protecting the doors from the heat. The runner or spout 

151 



152 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 




Fig. 76. 



CUPOLAS, BLOWERS, AND MELTING FURNACES 153 

leads from the breast to conduct the metal to the receiv- 
ing ladle. The tuyeres are openings through the lining 
for the air blast to enter. There may be one, two, or 
three rows of tuyeres located at different levels. The total 
tuyere area varies from one-tenth the cross-sectional area 
of the cupola, inside the lining, for small cupolas, to one- 
seventh for those of large diameter. A wind-belt, or 
wind jacket, surrounds the shell over the tuyeres. The 
blast is conducted to this wind belt and enters the cupola 
through the tuyeres. Peep holes are provided in the 
covering of the wind jacket opposite each tuyere. 
Through these the melter may watch the process of melt- 
ing. In the figure a manometer is shown fastened to the 
wind jacket. This indicates the pressure of the blast. 
The amount of blast pressure varies with the size of 
cupola. The air must be forced to the centre of the fire 
to effect combustion there at the same rate as nearer the 
lining. In small cupolas the pressure varies from 4 to 
8 oz., while in larger sizes it may be up to 14 oz. per 
square inch. 

The charging door is placed at the charging floor. 
Its height above the tapping hole or hearth of the cupola 
should be such as to ensure complete combustion of the 
fuel, and absorption of the largest percentage of the heat 
by the charges, before passing the charging door. 

The hearth is where the molten metal accumulates, 
it is the space between the bottom and the level of the 
bottom of the tuyeres. The average height of the hearth 
is about 10 inches. 

A slag notch is provided on all cupolas for drawing off 
the slag from the surface of the iron when running long 



!^ 4 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

heats. The slag notch is fitted similarly to the breast of 
the cupola but at a level slightly below the bottom of the 
tuyeres. It should be so arranged that the tuyere is not 
close on either side as the cold air chills the slag form- 
ing bridging, or obstructing the tuyere. In order to draw 
off the slag, the iron is allowed nearly to fill the hearth 
up to the slag notch. The notch is then opened, allow- 
ing the slag to flow off the surface of the iron. When the 
iron appears, the slag notch is closed and the tapping hole 
opened to draw off the iron. 

An alarm tuyere or plug should be provided on every 
cupola. When the metal rises to the bottom of the tu- 
yeres, it overflows first at the alarm, thus giving warning 
so the metal is not allowed to flow into the wind belt 
and eventually fill it with the iron. A common form of 
alarm is to have a groove through the lowest tuyere 
which allows the rising metal to flow off there first. Di- 
rectly below the groove a plug is fitted having its centre 
of soft metal which is easily melted. The hot iron or 
slag melts the plug, then flows to the outside on the 
ground where it is seen. A form which gives good results 
where the blast pressure does not exceed eight ounces is 
to have a casting with open centre and tapered flanges for 
holding its cover fitted to the wind jacket below the alarm 
tuyere. The cover has a small hole about i inch in 
diameter through its centre. About three thicknesses of 
common paper are placed over the cover, then slid into 
place, thus making it nearly air-tight, and burning 
through almost instantly when the cupola overflows. 
This form is quickly replaced, and acts more quickly 
than most forms of alarm. 



CUPOLAS, BLOWERS, AND MELTING FURNACES 155 

The lining of a cupola is burned out more rapidly in 
some parts than in others. To allow renewing parts of 
the lining without disturbing the entire brick work, angle 
irons are riveted to the shell at different levels to hold 
the lining between those levels. The brick may then be 
removed between any two angle irons without disturbing 
the remainder of the lining. 

In putting a new lining into a cupola the less clay that 
can be used between the bricks and have the joints sealed, 
the longer the lining will last. When the clay is thick 
in the joints, it burns quickly and crumbles, leaving the 
edges of the bricks exposed to the fire, thus burning them 
away. The clay should be mixed with water, and very 
thin, so that by dipping the bricks into the mixture 
enough will adhere to form a tight joint. The bricks 
should be pressed together to squeeze out the superfluous 
clay and to ensure a tight joint. 

The shell expands as the temperature rises, while the 
brick changes but slightly. To avoid crushing the lining 
when the shell contracts and to maintain a tight lining as 
the shell expands, a space is left between the shell and 
the brick when the lining is made. This space is filled 
with fine cinders, a mixture of fire-clay and cinders, or 
dry fire-clay. This loose material protects the shell from 
metal breaking through the lining, and allows the shell 
to give without injuring the lining. 

The cupola must be prepared for each succeeding 
heat. At the end of each heat, when all the iron has been 
melted, the bottom is dropped to allow the slag and 
refuse to fall out. There is always enough molten slag 
and iron left with the fuel to form a solid mass if allowed 



156 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

to cool in the cupola. Some of the refuse always clings 
to the lining so that it does not drop clean. In some 
cases, the formation on the lining projects out for some 
distance or to nearly cover the bottom. Before another 
heat can be taken off, this refuse must be removed. 
This can be done with a small pick or pinch bar, having 
one end sharpened. The thick parts are broken off with 
a hammer, then the remainder with the bar. Care 
must be taken to avoid loosening or injuring the brick. 
Where the brick is glazed over, it should be left, for that 
glazing is as good protection to the brick as the clay 
daubing. 

After the cupola has been picked out and the lining 
left clean, a coating of clay is put over the lining. This 
process is called daubing the cupola and the clay mix- 
ture used is called the daubing. The best clay for this 
purpose is fire-clay. Other mixtures are red or blue clay 
mixed with sharp sand in a proportion that will not crack 
open when dry, or 1 part of sand to 4 of clay. Too much 
sharp sand destroys the body of the clay so that it crum- 
bles. The fire-clay is more expensive, but the lining will 
last much longer than when the mixture is used. 

The daubing is spread over the face of the burned 
lining to a thickness of from J to 1 inch. Where a brick 
is burned away deeper than the others, it should be filled 
in with pieces of brick mixed with the clay. This keeps 
the body of the clay thin so it will not crack or sag as is 
the case when thick in places. When the bricks are 
burned away so that the lining becomes hollowing, this 
should not be filled with the clay to make it even with 
the upper parts. If this is filled in, the clay will sag 



CUPOLAS, BLOWERS, AND MELTING FURNACES 157 

down and become too heavy to stick to the lining. The 
commotion of the fuel and iron against it when melting 
soon starts the clay and makes it break away from the 
lining. This produces a large amount of slag and may 
cause trouble by clogging up the cupola and stopping the 
melting. When daubing to a thickness of J to 1 inch will 
not keep the shell from becoming red hot during the heat, 
it should be relined with brick. 

After the lining is prepared the bottom is made. 
This consists of a sand bed on the bottom door so pre- 
pared as to hold the iron and conduct it to the tapping 
hole. The bottom, or drop, door is put up and perma- 
nently propped in place. The sand is placed upon it 
and rammed enough to compress the surface to bear 
the weight of the iron. The bottom should slope back 
from the tapping hole so as to give a free flow of the 
metal when tapped out. It should not be sloped too 
much, as that gives force to the flow which makes it 
difficult to stop, and if not sloped enough the iron may 
freeze at the tapping hole when the metal enters it. 

The sand should be very open and yet be loamy enough 
to hold together and not allow the metal to ooze through 
it. The sand may be taken from the gangway, or from 
the dirt pile. When too loamy it may bake hard and 
form a crust which will not drop, especially in small 
cupolas. Very open sand may be used, then after the 
bottom is shaped it may be coated with clay wash, which 
forms a firm crust on the surface. 

Forming the tapping hole is an important factor in 
preparing the cupola. The portion of the cupola in front 
of the spout is called the breast. The opening made 



i58 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



in the breast for the metal to flow through is called the 
tapping hole or port. 

The brick work is arched over the breast, leaving an 
opening for forming the tapping hole of the desired 
depth. For the remaining distance between the inner 
edge of the tapping hole and the face of the brick the 
form is cone-shaped of such a pitch that it enlarges 
rapidly toward the inside. The tapping hole should not 
be more than three inches long. The front may be put 
in before putting in the fuel for the bed, or afterwards by 
using the fuel for a backing to form it against. When the 
cupola is large enough, a good plan is to place a board 
against the lining to cover the breast, put the draw-plug 
in the desired position for the tapping hole, and ram or 
pack the breast into the desired shape. The plug and 
board are removed, then the inside is shaped with a trowel 
even with the brick and a conical hole from the outside 
to within two inches of the inner face to form the tapping 
hole. The breast may be made of a mixture of clay and 
new molding sand or a stiff clay. It is best to form the 
bottom of clay for four or five inches in front of the 
tapping hole, to prevent the tapping bar from making 
a hole in the bottom. 

The spout should be lined with clay when the breast 
is put in. It is partly dried with charcoal or with wood 
before the fuel is charged into the cupola. 

After the cupola is prepared for charging, the kind- 
ling for starting the fire is placed upon the bottom. 
Shavings are placed in front of the breast for lighting and 
the wood on top of them. A sufficient amount of wood 
is put upon the kindling to ensure its starting the coke to 



CUPOLAS, BLOWERS, AND MELTING FURNACES 159 

a good fire. Coke is placed upon the wood to the amount 
of the bed charge. It is then ready to light. Iron should 
not be charged until the coke begins to burn or until fire 




Fig. 77. 

shows through at the top of the bed. Iron and coke 
should be charged successively until it is at the height of 
the charging door. Succeeding charges are put in as fast 
as the preceding charges settle away from the charging 
door. The charge within the cupola is kept to the height 



160 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

of the charging door until the entire amount to be charged 
has been put in. This is so that the descending charge 
may take up as much of the heat of the escaping gases 
as possible, so that the iron may be near the melting- 
point when it descends to the melting zone. The charge 
of coke on the bed must be of an amount that will hold the 
iron at the melting zone of the cupola until it is all melted. 
Each succeeding charge should be of the amount neces- 
sary to^ melt the charge of iron placed upon it. The first 
charge of iron may be much larger than the succeeding 
charges, but must not be so large that part of it passes 
below the melting zone before it is melted. 

The weights of the charges for a 26-inch cupola are 
as follows: On first charge, 390 pounds of coke on bed, 
1 1 70 pounds of iron. On each succeeding charge, 50 
pounds of coke, alternating with 450 pounds of iron. 

The smallest heat that may be taken from a cupola 
consists of the bed charge and one succeeding charge. 
The largest heat is that which may be run off before the 
tuyeres become clogged so that the melting stops. For 
long heats, a flux should be charged with the .'ron, which 
forms a slag of the refuse in the cupola and makes the 
slag more fluid. The slag is removed through the slag 
notch, which clears the cupola, allowing it to run longer 
without stopping up. 

In order to produce a soft iron for machinery castings, 
mix 1 part of soft foundry pig iron with 4 parts of ma- 
chinery scrap iron. 

In using limestone, marble, or shells, the flux is charged 
with thciron in an amount of 30 to 50 pounds to one ton 
of iron. 



CUPOLAS, BLOWERS, AND MELTING FURNACES 161 

The tapping out and stopping up of a cupola must 
be accomplished while the blast is on. After the fire is 
lighted, the breast, or port hole and the tuyeres are 
left open to supply air to the fire until the blast is 
turned on. The fire should be started early enough to 
allow the wood to burn out and the coke to become well 
ignited before the blast is turned on. As the blast is 
started, the covers over the tuyeres are closed, leaving 
only the port hole open. This is kept open until the 
molten metal appears, when it is closed with a clay ball. 



Bott Stick 



Tapping- Bar 





Tapping-Chisel 

Fig. 78. 

The blast is allowed to blow through the port so as to 
burn the coke lodged in it and ensure a free passage for 
the first tap. After the metal appears it will keep the 
coke and refuse out of the tapping hole. The fire blow- 
ing through the port heats it to prevent the chilling of the 
first iron that enters it. 

The tools used for tapping and stopping up a cupola 
are shown in Fig. 78. The bott stick is for stopping up 
the cupola by placing a clay ball upon the disk end to 
close the port. The tapping bar is used for tapping out 
or removing the clay ball which has become baked in the 
port. The tapping chisel is used when iron or encrusta- 



162 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

tions have frozen about the tapping hole so that the bar 
cannot remove them. 

In stopping up the cupola, the bott stick should be 
directed downward into the port, so that the clay is 
pressed into the hole before it dries on the face by con- 
tact with the metal. When the bott stick is forced against 
the stream of metal, it washes away or forms a crust 
which will not unite with the edges of the hole, therefore 
it will not stop the flow. The clay ball must hold the 
pressure of the blast and that of the metal head acting 
against it. 

Where long bott sticks are necessary, a light and stiff 
one may be made of a tube whose ends are drawn, so 
that a handle is welded at one end and a rod bearing the 
disk at the other. A soft wood bott stick having a metal 
end on which to place the ball gives good service and is 
light to handle. 

The clay for stopping a cupola must be capable of 
bearing the pressure and still not bake so hard that it can 
not be broken away with the tapping bar. A mixture for 
forming the clay balls :s i part sand to 3 parts of good 
clay, then 1 part flour to 10 parts of the mixture. This 
will bake as a core for holding the metal and after drying 
it crumbles away easily before the tapping bar. 

Furnaces of the reverberatory type are now used 
only where it is important to have the iron of a par- 
ticular quality or chemical combination. For chilled 
work and castings for malleablizing, the reverberatory 
furnace has some advantage over the cupola. The fuel 
required for melting a given amount is about double that 
of a cupola. Soft and cheaper fuels may be used. 



CUPOLAS, BLOWERS, AND MELTING FURNACES 163 

In this furnace the fuel is burned upon a grate and 
the metal is held in a separate division where it is not in 
contact with the fuel. The process of melting is slower, 
and the molten metal may be retained in the furnace until 
its chemical condition is that desired. Test may be made 




Fig. 79. 

of the accumulated metal, and when the carbon is in 
the proper condition the metal may be tapped out and 
cast. 

The two general forms of furnace are shown in Figs. 
79 and 80. In the furnace represented by Fig. 79, the 
bath is immediately behind the bridge, while that shown 



164 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



in Fig. 80 has its bath at the end remote from the bridge. 
The fuel is placed upon the grates through the opening 
D. The charging door is shown at C, which is a cast- 
iron door lined with fire-brick. The hearth at H is where 
the metal is placed when charged. P shows the opening 
or peep holes through which the process of melt ng may 
be seen or the working of the metal effected. The tap- 
ping hole is shown at B at the bottom of the bath. 

The bed or bottom of the furnace is made similar to 
that of a cupola, using the same mixture or one that is 




Fig. 80. 



more open. This bed will last for eight to ten heats, if 
it has been well dried before the first charge is placed 
upon it. The walls and roof of the furnace are made of 
the most refractory kind of fire-brick, using care to have 
close joints and all crevices carefully sealed to ensure 
proper working of the furnace. 

When iron is in a molten state, the presence of oxy- 
gen will affect the carbon in the iron and burn out the 
graphitic carbon, making it harder and more brittle. The 
special object of using a reverberator} 7 furnace is to 



CUPOLAS, BLOWERS, AND MELTING FURNACES 165 

obtain an iron having its carbon in the form desired, hence 
it is very important that cold air or oxygen should not 
strike upon the metal. The openings must be closed 
except when necessary to assist the working of the fur- 
nace. The entire charge for the heat must be placed 
upon the hearth before melting begins, because the fur- 
nace is so cooled and the metal acted upon by the cold air 
when a new charge is put in that it cannot be brought 
back and the charge melted before the iron in the bath is 
too cold for use. It is similarly of importance that an 
even fire should be maintained and that no holes be 
caused by cleaning or raking the fire, thus avoiding the 
entrance of air to the furnace through the fire. The pres- 
sure of the blast should be that necessary to maintain a 
rapid fire with complete combustion. The usual pressure 
necessary is from 6 in. to 7 inches of water column. 

The iron should be charged onto the hearth so as to 
leave openings between the pieces. The first layer should 
extend lengthwise of the furnace and each succeeding 
one should lie across the preceding layer. The melter 
may often hasten the process of melting by separating 
the pieces or by breaking apart those that tend to weld. 
The molten metal is skimmed, as the accumulation of 
dirt or scum shields the surface from the direct action of 
the flames and thus the furnace loses its efficiency. When 
various brands of iron are charged into the furnace, the 
metal is mixed by the process of "boiling," or "polling 
the metal." This process usually consists of thrusting 
green wood into the metal, causing a violent ebullition 
throughout the mass, ensuring a homogeneous product. 
After all the charge is melted and the iron is white-hot, 



1 66 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



the melter dips a sample from the furnace with a small 
hand ladle for testing. If found satisfactory, the mass 
is boiled or polled for about five minutes, then the damper 
in the flue is closed and the furnace tapped. The iron 
should then be poured immediately, as it will change in 




Fig. 8i. 



the ladles. All the operations in the furnace are con- 
ducted through the openings or peep holes, and are per- 
formed as quickly as possible to avoid keeping the holes 
open longer than absolutely necessary. 




Fig. 82. 

The vessels in which the molten iron is handled are 
called ladles. They are generally divided into four 
classes. Hand ladles shown in Fig. 81 are handled bv 
one man and hold up to 50 pounds of iron. The bull 
ladles are those having a double shank and are carried by 
two or more men. Such a ladle is shown in Fig. 82 



CUPOLAS, BLOWERS, AND MELTING FURNACES 167 

with the bail removed, or, similarly in Fig. in, having 
the straight shank on one side. These ladles hold from 
75 to 350 pounds of iron. The crane ladles are all those 
handled by use of the crane. There are two general 
types, those having the fixed shank with bail, as in Fig. 
82, and those having the gearing, as in Fig. 83. The 
fourth type of ladle is used only in special places where 




Fig. 83. 

suited for such use. These are mounted on wheels and 
are known as truck or car ladles, as shown in Fig. 84. 
They are used for delivering the iron from the cupola 
to a crane ladle or to the floors where it is to be poured. 

The ladle is made of sheet iron riveted together, and 
must be lined with clay or fire-brick to withstand the 
heat. The clay used may be about one part sharp 
sand to four parts pure clay. When the clay itself con- 
tains sand, the sharp sand may be reduced. The lin'ng 



i68 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



is put on evenly from one half to three quarters inch 
thick and dried. The cracks are filled with thin clay 




Fig. 84. 

and again dried to ensure a solid surface. The large 
ladles, as for the crane, are lined with fire-brick laid 




Fig. St. 



up in fire-clay, as in the case of the cupola lining. A 
daubing of clay is placed over the fire-brick to take 
the cutting and wash of the iron. The daubing is put 






CUPOLAS, BLOWERS, AND MELTING FURNACES 169 

on the same as the lining of the smaller ladles. In re- 
ceiving ladles for the cupola, the continual fall of the 
iron upon one point as it comes from the spout cuts away 
the lining very rapidly. Without special protection the 
lining will be cut away in a comparatively short time. A 
good method of daubing this ladle is to have the place 
where the metal strikes built up with small pieces of fire- 




Fig. 86. 



brick laid into the clay very closely, and the mass well 
bound together with the clay daubing and thoroughly 
dried before the metal strikes it. 

The blast for melting the iron is produced by blowers 
suitable to deliver the volume of air desired and to main- 
tain the pressure required for the particular furnace. 
There are two types of blower in general use: first, the 
positive blast or root blower, and second, the fan. 

Fig. 85 illustrates one style of a root blower which is 



170 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

driven by a belt. The blast is produced by the rotation 
of the vanes, as indicated by the arrows shown in the 
sectional view in Fig. 86. These blowers are positive, 




Fig. 87. 

because the volume of air delivered at the discharge side 
cannot escape back between the vanes to the admitting 
side, even if the pressure is increased in the discharge 



CUPOLAS, BLOWERS, AND MELTING FURNACES 171 

pipe. A relief valve is usually placed on the discharge 
pipe which relieves excess pressures. 

Fig. 87 shows one form of fan blower which is driven 
by belt. The blast is produced in these by the centrifugal 
force given the air at the end of the vanes and acting 
tangentially to the rotation of the fan, thus discharging 
into the delivery pipe. The air supply is taken in at the 
centre, which is left open. When the pressure in the de- 
livery p'pe becomes equal to the centrifugal force pro- 
duced by the fan, the air will not be delivered into the 
discharge pipe, hence no further increase of pressure. 

Either of these blowers may be directly connected or 
may be driven by ropes or belts. 



CHAPTER VI 

CHILLED CASTINGS 

In many castings it is desirable that parts of the sur- 
face shall be very hard, to withstand wear and tear, 
while other parts shall retain its general toughness or 
shall be of soft iron. This result is effected by chilling 
the portion of casting desired to be hard. The chilling 
is accomplished by placing an iron chill in the mold 
where chilling is desired, while the other portions of the 
mold are formed of sand as usual. The metal coming in 
contact with the iron is cooled quickly and holds the car- 
bon in the combined or white iron form, while the parts 
cooling more slowly allow the carbon to change back to 
the graphitic or gray iron form, which is soft and tough. 

This method of hardening parts of castings is used for 
many forms of casting and under various conditions. 
The most extensive use is that of chilling the rim of car 
wheels and the face of rolls. 

The sand parts of the mold are made similar to other 

castings, either in green or dry sand, as the case may 

require. The chill portions are placed into the mold as a 

third part to the flask, as in car wheels and rolls, or are 

set similarly to a core in the side of small molds, as 

machine parts, anvils, etc. The chill is heated in an oven 

to a temperature of about 200 F., before placing in the 

172 



CHILLED CASTINGS 



173 



mold. The moisture from the mold and from the sand 
adjoining the chill would be deposited on the surface if it 
were cold, thus causing it to blow and to force the molten 
iron away from it when cast. After warming, the face of 
the chill must be coated in order to prevent the iron from 
sticking to the surface and to allow the chill to be lifted 
from the surface. A coating of blacking wet with mo- 
lasses water gives good satisfaction. Other methods of 
coating that work better in particular cases are : to shellac 
the face and allow to harden well before using; to varnish 
the face with a common grade and when nearly dry 
sprinkle with plumbago; or to use a thin coating of a 
light clean oil, as a heavy oil or a thick coat will burn 
off, thus holding the iron away by the gases formed. 

The chill should be so placed in the mold that the 
metal shall rise on the chill but shall not lie horizontally 
or have the inflowing metal fall upon the chill. The 
gates should be so arranged and of such a size that the 
chill will be covered quickly to prevent the metal form- 
ing bubbles on the surface of the chill. It should be 
flushed up quickly, or the chill will cause cold-shots and 
streaks in the chill surface. 

The metal in contact with the chill forms a crust or 
shell quickly and contracts, holding the remainder of the 
iron while still in the molten state. If there is any 
unevenness in the pressure on this shell, it may cause 
cracking or bursting of the surface, as is sometimes 
noted in chilled faces. This may be lessened by having 
the flask so arranged that the chill is level, as in rolls or 
car wheels. 

The chill should be made of the best grade of iron 



174 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

having little contraction, so that the surface will not 
check and break when the face is suddenly heated by the 
molten metal. A good iron for making chill casting will 
make a good chill. Wrought iron is sometimes used for 
a chill. The thickness of the chill is much dependent 
upon the depth that it is desired to chill the casting. It 
must be of such a size that it may conduct away the heat 
necessary to cool the iron from the molten state, about 
2500 F., to that of solidification, about 1000 F., and 
must hold it at that temperature so that the iron within 
will not remelt the chilled skin. Special types of chill 
for car wheels are in use which give good results. They 
are made up of parts instead of a solid ring, and some 
forms are so arranged that the chill contracts as the cast- 
ing contracts, thus following the surface of the castings as 
it cools. Another form has open chambers through 
which steam is circulated to warm the chill before cast- 
ing, then cold water is circulated after casting, to effect a 
deeper chill. The depth of chill is dependent upon the 
mixture of iron used and the rapidity with which the face 
of the casting is cooled. The depth of chill on rolls 
varies from one half inch to seven-eighths inch to suit 
different requirements. Some users of rolls desire a 
defined chilled skin while others wish the chilled portion 
to shade gradually into the soft interior of the casting. 
Car wheels are chilled to a depth of about three fourths 
of an inch. 

The mixtures of iron for chill castings can be success- 
fully made only by use of chemical analysis, and not by 
judging from the fracture. Good soft iron should have 
1.8 per cent silicon; while this will not chill without 









CHILLED CASTINGS 1 75 

excess of sulphur, which makes a very poor iron. Chill 
iron should have less than 1 per cent silicon and not 
over 0.08 per cent sulphur. The total carbon should be 
as high as possible, other metalloids being constant. 
The combined carbon should rarely exceed 0.6 per cent, 
as that makes the iron too hard and too brittle. The 
mixtures must be closely watched and tested every day 
to ensure the proper proportion of impurities. Iron 
melted in a cupola is tested before pouring into the chill 
molds. The test is for depth of chill, and the test bar is 
about 2 in. square and 6 in. long, having one side against 
a chill. It is cooled and broken, and if the chill is insuf- 
ficient it is poured into other molds or pig beds where it 
may be remelted. The air or reverberatory furnace has 
many advantages for this class of work, as the iron may 
be tested and varied by addition of special irons before 
tapping for the purpose of pouring. 



CHAPTER VII 

MALLEABLE CASTINGS 

Malleable cast iron is a form that becomes tough and 
partly malleable when annealed by the malleablizing 
process. The iron loses its brittleness and may be bent 
or straightened without breaking. Thus it may better 
resist shock and occupies a place between gray iron and 
wrought iron, having a higher tensile strength than the 
former and less ductility than the latter. 

The effect of the malleablizing process is to change both 
the chemical composition and physical properties of the 
iron. The most important of these changes is to con- 
vert a large part of the carbon, which originally existed 
in the combined form, into a special variety of the gra- 
phitic form. This variety does not occur, as ordinarily 
in plates, but in a much finer state of division. In prac- 
tice, the percentage of total carbon as well as other metal- 
loids is somewhat reduced. The results of these changes 
are to make some of the physical properties of the cast- 
ing resemble those of wrought iron. 

The iron used must be a white iron whose carbon will 
be in the combined form. The per centage of silicon must 
be low. When above 0.75 per cent, the metal will have 
a high tensile strength but small elongation. The frac- 
ture has a steely appearance in the finished casting when 

176 



MALLEABLE CASTINGS 



177 



the silicon is too high. Phosphorus is beneficial up to 
0.15 per cent, as it helps maintain fluidity in the metal. 
Sulphur is very detrimental when present in appreciable 
percentages. An iron having sulphur or phosphorus too 
high will be harder and have cracks at the surface of the 
casting. The presence of manganese in comparatively 
high percentages is beneficial to the resulting casting. 
It acts as a neutralizer on the silicon to prevent its effect 
upon the carbon. Manganese assists the carbon change, 
and shortens the time necessary for its completion. 
Scaly castings, when properly packed, result from too 
low a percentage of manganese. 

The process of annealing is effected by packing the 
castings with oxidizing reagents into covered cast-iron 
boxes. They are placed in ovens which are sealed and 
heated by some form of direct-fired furnace which holds 
the temperature uniformly at about 1850 F. for a period 
from eight hours to several days, dependent upon the 
size and character of the castings. The ovens are so 
arranged as to distribute the heat evenly and not to be 
subjected to sudden changes. The temperature is meas- 
ured by a pyrometer which will indicate the high tem- 
perature. Too high or too low a temperature affects the 
action of the reagents and injures the resulting castings. 
The oven is heated slowly so as to maintain the tempera- 
ture of the castings at nearly that of the oven at all times, 
and is cooled very slowly when the process is complete, 
to avoid a chemical change due to the sudden change of 
temperature. These ovens may be fired by coke, coal, 
oil, or gas. 

The reagents used must be high in oxygen, which at 



178 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

the temperature of the annealing will combine with the 
carbon of the iron forming CO gas, which passes off. 
Some of the reagents used are red hematite ore, rolling 
mill scale well oxidized or rusted, and steel turnings 
heavily rusted. The oxidizing may be effected by a weak 
solution of sal-ammoniac. These may be used several 
times by the addition of a partly fresh unburnt reagent, 
or by reoxidizing with sal-ammoniac each time. The 
casting must be completely covered with the reagent 
when packed in the boxes. If two castings touch, those 
spots will not be properly malleablized, thus making an 
imperfect casting. 

The form and proportions of the pattern for malleable 
work require special attention. Sharp angles must be 
avoided and all corners filleted with adequate radii. The 
iron always shrinks away from the angle in both direc- 
tions, thus causing a crack or depression, which should 
be avoided. The change from light to heavy section 
should be gradual. The round section has proved to be 
the weakest form, hence it should be avoided. As the 
greatest strength of malleable castings lies in the skin, 
it is preferable to have as great a surface as possible with 
no great thickness of metal, as in many cases it is prefer- 
able to have several thin ribs rather than one thick one. 

The gating of castings to be malleablized is of great 
importance and requires the most skill and experience of 
any part of the work. For this reason most patterns have 
gates attached which are put on by experienced men. 
The cause of difficulty in gating a casting or running in- 
tricate forms, as in gray iron, is the hardness of the iron, 
causing it to shrink more and set more quickly. The 



MALLEABLE CASTINGS 1 79 

branch gate should not extend from the bottom of the 
feeder, as it will chill from the sand, thus solidifying 
socner than the metal in the mold. The feeder should 
extend about one-third its length below the branch gate 
and should be as close as possible to the casting. For 
light patterns the branch gate should not exceed half 
an inch in length, and it is preferably of circular section. 
When it is difficult to feed a portion of a mold properly, 
a chill may be placed at that point to solidify it more 
quickly than the other parts, thus preventing fracture or 
shrink-holes. 



CHAPTER VIII 

CLEANING CASTINGS 

When the casting comes from the mold it has more or 
less sand adhering to its surface, or the cores are still in 
the casting. It must be cleaned and all sand removed 







Fig. 88. 

before it is ready for the machine shop. The gates and 
risers, as well as all fins, should be chipped off. This is 
a portion of the cleaning and of the preparation for leav- 
ing the foundry. The methods of cleaning the sand from 

180 






CLEANING CASTINGS 



181 



castings may be classed under three main heads: First, 
the use of tumbling barrels; second, hand work; third, 
the use of pneumatic appliances. The tumbling barrel, 




00 






or rattler, is driven by power and cleans the castings by 
their rolling about in the drum as it turns over. Fig. 88 
represents a tumbling barrel driven by the friction wheels 
on which it rests. Fig. 89 shows a pair of tumbling 



l82 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



barrels driven by gears and having the exhaust connec- 
tion for drawing away the dust as it is freed from the 
castings. 




The cleaning by hand is chiefly done by use of wire 
brushes and emery bricks, or rub-stones. When the sand 
is fused hard onto the casting, it may require chipping, 
filing, or scraping with iron scrapers. The use of pneu- 
matic appliances for foundry work is increasing rapidly. 



CLEANING CASTINGS 1 83 

The greatest convenience for cleaning is found in the 
sand-blast appliances, as represented in Fig. 90; also as 
connected to a tumbling barrel having an exhaust con- 
nection. The sand blast is attached to the tumbling bar- 
rel at the centre opposite to the exhaust pipe. This 
gives the action of the sand blast upon the castings as 
they move about in the tumbling barrel. 

The gates, risers, and fins on castings are removed, in 
general, by hand chipping, or by the use of a pneumatic 
hammer shown in Fig. 95. When the gates on castings 
cannot be broken and chipped without danger of break- 
ing into the casting, it is sawed off or ground off on an 
emery wheel. Many shops are equipped with cold saws 
for this purpose. All shops making steel castings must 
be provided with cold saws of some type, because the 
gates and risers must be so large that it is impossible to 
chip them off without danger of spoiling the casting. 
The emery wheel is used extensively on small castings 
and for smoothing over the chipping on other castings. 
The fixed wheel of a coarse grade is generally used. The 
portable emery wheel, or grinder, is very convenient for 
large castings. 



184 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



i 

w 

m b 










CHAPTER IX 

COMPRESSED AIR FOR FOUNDRY PURPOSES 

The use of compressed air in a modern foundry is 
considered indispensable. By use of pneumatic tools and 
machinery the cost of foundry products is greatly reduced. 
The appliances operated by compressed air are the pneu- 
matic crane, hoist, molding machine, sand sifter, chipping 
hammer, screen shaker, sand rammer, and sand-blast 
machine. 

The pneumatic crane is shown in Fig. 91. All move- 
ments of the crane are controlled by the operator in the 
carriage. 

The pneumatic hoist is shown in Fig. 92. In lifting 
copes and drawing patterns, the most perfect and regular 
motion is required to prevent "sticks," "tears," and 
"drop-outs." A jerk is fatal to the mold. This hoist 
may be moved with a speed as slow and as regular as the 
hour hand of a clock, and a change of speed may be 
made without a sudden jerk or jar. It may be operated 
rapidly as well. 

A pneumatic molding machine is shown in Fig. 93. 

The pneumatic sand sifter is shown in Fig. 94. This 
machine is operated by an air cylinder directly con- 
nected to the sifter. The air is supplied to the cylinder 

185 



1 86 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 




Fig. 92. 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR FOUNDRY PURPOSES 187 




Fig. 93. 



88 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



by a rubber hose, making the machine portable so that it 
may be used in any location in the foundry. 




Fig. 9-1. 




Fig. 95. 



The pneumatic chipping hammer is shown in Fig. 95. 
The pneumatic sand rammer in Fig. 96 is fitted to 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR FOUNDRY PURPOSES 189 

hang from a support, and has both pein and butt as the 
operator may desire. 




Fig. 96. 

The sand blast machine is shown in Fig. 90. 
Fig. 97 shows a pneumatic shaker mounted on a 
tripod so that it may be placed wherever desired and may 




Fig. 97. 

be fitted to hold a riddle, so that a riddle of any desired 
number may be placed in it. 

Fig. 98 represents a pneumatic hoist having a wind- 
ing drum driven by cylinders. 



19° 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 




Fig. 98. 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR FOUNDRY PURPOSES 19 1 




Fig. 99. 




Fig. 100. 



192 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



The machines shown in figures 99 to 104 represent 
a few of the special foundry machines. The sand sifter 




Fig. ioi. 




Fig. 102. 



shown in Fig. 99 is driven by belt but may be fitted 
with a hand wheel for hand power. 



COMPRESSED AIR FOR FOUNDRY PURPOSES 193 





Fig. 103. 




Fig. 101. 



194 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



Fig. ioo represents a rotary sand sifter which is belt- 
driven. 

Figs. 101 and 102 are sand mixers having paddles 
which rotate to mix the sand thoroughly. 

Fig. 103 is a centrifugal mixer. The sand entering 
from the hopper falls upon a rotating disk which throws 
the sand by centrifugal force, thus mixing it. 

These mixers are of especial advantage in mixing 
facings or sands of different kinds where a thorough 
mixing is necessary. 

Fig. 104 represents a sand crusher. The pan holding 
the sand rotates under the rolls and the sand is loosened 
by fixed paddles between the rolls. These paddles may 
serve as a mixer also and are used in mixing the sand 
and clay for the facing of molds for steel castings. 



CHAPTER X 

STEEL CASTINGS 

The manufacture of steel castings is greatly increas- 
ing in extent and variety. The industry is young, so 
that it has not been developed to its fullest extent. A 
few brief points will here be given which may give 
the iron worker an idea of methods necessary in making 
steel castings. 

The mold is formed in sand, which may be green or 
dried to suit the type of work. The same mixtures are 
used in both cases. The sand is a very open mixture 
with sufficient clay to form a binder. The following 
mixture may be taken as a guide: Mix 3 parts coarse 
sharp sand 98 per cent SiC>2, 2 parts fine sharp sand 95 
per cent Si02, 1 part red clay. 

This mixture should be thoroughly blended and 
crushed in a sand crusher. This is used as a facing 
while the heap sand from former molds is used as a 
backing sand. 

The mold is rammed very hard, so that in the green 
form it is nearly as hard as a dry sand mold for iron. 
The sand is tempered to hold together but is kept as dry 
as possible. When the mold is dried it becomes very 
hard and has great strength to resist pressure. 

Steel will cut the and much more readily than iron. 

19s 



I0 6 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

All edges and projections must be well nailed so that 
the heads hold the surface of the sand. All large plane 
surfaces must be nailed quite closely to prevent cutting 
in the drag and drawing down the cope. 

Owing to the hard ramming, the pattern is hard to 
remove, hence the exact form of casting is not obtained 
so easily as in iron. Particular forms, as gear teeth, are 
more difficult to obtain in steel than in iron. 

The metal must be of a higher temperature than iron 
in order to maintain fluidity. Hence it sets more quickly 
and usually is duller when poured than iron. The gates 
must be made correspondingly large to allow the mold to 
fill quickly, or the light or sharp parts will not run. The 
shrinkage is about double that of iron, and takes place 
very soon after pouring. A riser must be provided of 
adequate size to feed the shrinkage. The feeding rod 
cannot be used as effectively as in iron, hence the riser 
must act more as a sinking head. 

Castings of such form that they crush the sand of the 
mold when shrinkage takes place are sometimes found 
to be broken or drawn weak in places when they come 
from the mold. This is due to the casting being unable 
to crush the sand to permit the shrinkage. This may be 
prevented by cutting a gutter on the parting of the flask 
about two inches from the casting and connecting this 
gutter by an opening through the cope. As soon as the 
casting has set the gutter is filled with water, which 
softens the sand, making it easier to crush. In some 
cases, castings of quite intricate and large size have been 
made more successfully in green sand than in dry owing 
to the mold's resistance to crushing. 



STEEL CASTINGS 



197 



The chief methods of melting steel for steel casting are 
by the cupola or by a converter. Steel is successfully 
melted in the cupola the same as iron. The higher tem- 
perature required offers many difficulties which are a 
drawback to the process. It is hard to obtain good 
fluidity in the cupola. The converter gives steel of the 
composition desired, and the fluidity is much more per- 
fect. 

Formerly steel was melted in a crucible, similarly to 
brass, but this is an expensive method which is not used 
except in isolated cases. The bottom blow, side blow, 
and open-hearth converter are the most economical 
producers of steel for castings. Where the furnace can 
be kept in operation continuously, the open-hearth fur- 
nace presents many advantages. For intermittent heats, 
the bottom or side blow converter gives the best results. 
The side-blow converter proves preferable, as the iron 
used may be lower in silicon and yet obtain a good steel; 
and besides the steel becomes superheated, which better 
permits handling and pouring. 

In the open-hearth furnace, the metal is melted and 
reduced in its bath. Any kind of iron or steel scrap may 
be charged. The product is tested by a sample and is 
poured when the steel is of the nature desired. The 
process is slow, taking from eight to twelve hours to 
reduce a charge. 

In the blow converter, the reduction takes place in a 
very few minutes. The iron for the charge is melted in 
a cupola and put into the converter in the molten state. 
The progress of the conversion is told by the gases which 
pass off at the top. When the desired amount of impur- 



I9 8 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

ities have been removed, a charge of spiegeleisen is mixed 
with that in the converter, giving a product of the de- 
sired percentage of carbon. The steel may be varied by 
changing the percentage of spiegeleisen charged. The 
blast is turned off before charging the spiegeleisen. The 
two charges in the converter are allowed to mix, then it 
is poured out ready for the molds. 

The iron used for the converter should have about 
2 per cent of silicon, phosphorus below 0.06 per cent, 
manganese as low as possible, and sulphur very low. 

The following mixture may be substituted for the ore 
spiegeleisen: 95 lbs. of ferrous silicate, 45 lbs. of man- 
ganese, 65 lbs. of pig iron which is low in phosphorus 
and high in silicon. 



CHAPTER XI 

BRASS FOUNDING 

Brass molding is so similar to iron molding that a 
description is unnecessary. One is different from the 
other only in the particular that gating and venting must 
be given more consideration. The sand used for brass 
molding is much finer, and when rammed in the flask 
it must be well vented, or unsound castings will result. 
The metal used in brass casting is of a nature that will 
not permit an unnecessarily high temperature, as the 
castings will not then be sound. Long runners cool the 
metal so as to prevent its filling the mold properly. Short 
runners and a liberal amount of gating are desirable. 
The sand most used for brass molding is the Albany. 
This sand is fine and gives entire satisfaction for ordi- 
nary brass work; but for heavy work in brass, and when 
the casting is to be finished, the mold is made in a coarse 
and more open sand. Sometimes it is advisable to make 
the mold in dry sand for heavy work. In pouring the 
metal into the mold, it should be run as rapidly as possible 
until the mold is filled. On heavy castings it is very 
necessary to provide the mold with a riser or shrinking 
head, as the shrinkage in brass or bronze is greater than 
in cast iron. After the metal has been cast it may be 

cooled in water as soon as it has solidified. 

199 



200 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



By slowly cooling the brass becomes hard, and by 
sudden cooling the brass may be softened. The immers- 
ing in water gives the sudden cooling, and besides re- 
moves the sand from the casting. 

In preparing the mold for brass the ordinary facings 
used in iron molds are unnecessary. Plumbago is sel- 
dom used except in heavy castings; for light and medium 




Fig. 105. 



work, flour, pulverized soapstone, charcoal, and some- 
times plaster of Paris or bone dust are used. In very 
light castings nothing is necessary except very fine mold- 
ing sand. 

Very good results are obtained in small work by using 
a very fine sand and spraying the mold with gasoline, 
lighting it, and allowing it to burn off. This skin-dries 
the mold and prevents the metal from washing or cutting 
the mold in pouring. 



BRASS FOUNDING 



20I 



The snap-flask is sometimes used in brass molding, 
but for small and for light, thin castings the flask shown 
in Fig. 105 is more convenient. This flask is provided 
with openings at one end which are used for pouring- 



-1 n 11 u;i I 11 u 11 1 ;i 

I c 



B 




Fig. 106. 



holes. When the mold is ready to cast it is set on end 
with the openings up. This gives more force to the metal 
and greater pressure in the mold. This also avoids the 
chilling of the metal before it reaches the mold. 



202 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



Brass founding differs somewhat from iron founding, 
for the reason that the metal is of a different character 
and must be treated differently. Brass, or copper alloys, 
cannot be melted in a cupola furnace and sound castings 




Fig. 107. 

be obtained, except in the case of heavy castings with 
thick metal. The metal coming in contact with the fuel 
is impregnated with impurities, which causes unsound 
castings. A simple form of furnace for melting brass is 
shown in Fig. 106. The more improved furnace is 



BRASS FOUNDING 203 

shown in Fig. 107. To prevent the metal from coming 
in contact with the fuel, a crucible is used. The crucible 
containing the metal is placed in the furnace, as shown in 
Fig. 106. The crucible is handled by means of tongs, as 
shown in Fig. 108. The furnace is connected with a 
chimney or smoke stack of sufficient height to furnish 
draft. Mechanical draft is, however, applied in some 
cases. The furnace shown in Fig. 107 is supplied with 
both natural and mechanical draft. This arrangement 
is best. While the natural draft is cheaper, there are 
days when the draft is inadequate and the melting slow. 




Fig. 108. 

At such times, it is desirable to use mechanical draft for 
faster melting. Foundry coke or anthracite coal is used 
in this type of furnace. 

In Fig. 106 the portion marked A is the fire chamber, 
B the ash pit through which the air is admitted to the 
grate C, and D the flue connecting with the chimney or 
stack. The ash pit in front and underneath the fire 
chamber is covered by a grating which may be lifted off 
when it is necessary to remove the ashes from the pit. 
The fire chamber cover E is provided with an upright 
handle to enable the operator to remove the cover when 
the furnace is hot. The fire chamber is constructed of 
fire-brick and is cylindrical in form. The bottom plate 
F, which supports the fire chamber, is square, having a 



204 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

round opening at its centre the same diameter as the 
chamber. This plate is made of cast iron and is sup- 
ported in the brick wall at the back and sides of the ash 
pit. The grate underneath the plate is composed of 




Fig. 109. 

single iron bars placed the proper distance apart and 
supported by cross bars at front and back extending into 
the sidewalls of the pit. The single bar grate is pre- 
ferred by many, on account of the convenience in clean- 
ing the fire without rebuilding. After one heat has been 



BRASS FOUNDING 



205 



taken, it is desirable to clear the furnace of cinders and 
ashes which form on the grate. This is difficult to do 
with the drop gate, as shown in Fig. 107. The single 
bars may be jarred sidewise with a long bar reaching 




Fig. 



through the grating on the ash pit, thus saving much 
time. 

To prepare for melting in this type of furnace, remove 
the grate bars, clear the furnace of ashes and clinkers, 



206 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



adjust the bars in their place, put in a sufficient amount 
of wood to start the coal or coke to burning, and add 
enough fuel to form a bed 10 or 12 inches in depth. 
After the fuel is well ignited, place the crucible with 
metal on the bed of coals and add fuel around the cru- 
cible to near its top. As the fuel burns away at the 
bottom of the furnace, the crucible must be raised slightly 
and more fuel added around its outside. While this is 
being done, care must be taken to prevent fuel falling 




Fig. hi. 

inside the crucible, as this is a source of damage to the 
metal. More metal may be added when that in the 
crucible melts and settles. When the metal has become 
fluid enough to run well, it should not be allowed to 
remain in the furnace, but should be removed with the 
crucible tongs and poured. If allowed to stand, or if 
overheated, the metal will be damaged. 

There are still more modern and improved brass melt- 
ing furnaces than those mentioned. Among others are 



BRASS FOUNDING 



207 



the Schwartz metal melting and refining furnace and the 
Charlier rolling furnace. These furnaces are heated by 
fuel oil or gas. They are very efficient and economical 
on account of rapid melting. The Schwartz furnace is 
shown in Fig. 109. This furnace is lined with fire-brick 
and is supported by trunnions having a bearing on pedes- 
tals. Air and oil are supplied at an opening through the 
trunnion at one end. The flow of oil is obtained from a 
standpipe, by pumping, or by air pressure in the tank. 




Fig. 112. 

The air is supplied from a blower or from a storage tank 
of compressed air, and is regulated by a valve. Fig. no 
is a general view of the furnace and its arrangement. 

The Charlier rolling furnace is shown in Fig. in. 
This furnace consists of a metallic casing lined with fire- 
brick and having an opening in the centre of rotation at 
one end, through which the fuel and air are admitted to 
the melting chamber. The arrangement of this furnace 
is similar to the one previously shown. Fig. 112 shows 
a general plan of a plant equipped with a Charlier fur- 
nace. 



CHAPTER XII 

CAST-IRON ALLOYS 

To toughen cast iron: 10 to 15 per cent of wrought iron 
scrap (stirred in) ; \ to 1 per cent of copper (stirred in) • 

To toughen cast iron or to form semi-steel: Add from 
5 to 30 per cent of steel scrap to the charge of iron in 
the cupola. 

To harden cast iron: Mix J pint vitriol, 1 peck common 
salt, \ lb. saltpetre, 2 lbs. alum, \ lb. prussic potash, 
\ lb. cyanide potash. Dissolve the mixture in 10 gallons 
of soft water. Heat the iron to a cherry-red and dip 
into the solution. For a harder and deeper skin on 
the iron, repeat the heating and dipping two or more 
times. 

To soften or to anneal cast iron: Heat to a cherry-red, 
then pack in a coating of bone-black and cover with 
ashes to allow cooling very slowly. 



208 



TABLES 

MELTING-POINTS OF DIFFERENT BRANDS OF IRON 



Combined 

Carbon. 

Percentage. 


Graphite. 
Percentage. 


Character 
of Fracture. 


Melting- 
point. 
Deg. F. 


Remarks. 


1. 60 
4.67 


3.16 
•°3 


Gray 
White 


2210 

2000 


Samples cast from same 
ladle 


i-57 
4.20 


2.90 
.20 


Gray 
White 


2250 
1990 


Samples cast from same 
ladle 


1.20 
3-9o 


2.90 
.16 


Gray 
White 


2250 
2000 


Samples cast from same 
ladle 


MELTING-POINTS OF SOLIDS 



Cast iron 2250 deg 

Wrought iron 3981 deg 

Gold 2587 deg 

Silver 1250 deg 

Steel 2501 deg 

Brass x 897 deg 

Copper 2550 deg 

Glass 2377 deg 

Platinum 3°77 deg 



Lead 600 deg. 

Zinc 741 deg. 

Cadmium 602 deg. 

Saltpetre 600 deg. 

Tin 420 deg. 

Sulphur 225 deg. 

Potassium 135 deg. 

Antimony 951 deg. 

Bismuth 476 deg. 



METAL ALLOYS (Values Represent Proportional Parts) 





Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Anti- 
mony. 


Bis- 
muth. 


Brass valves 


9 
10 

15 

36 

9 


1 
1.50 

5 
2.50 

1 
1 
1 
2 
10 


•5° 
-50 

17 


2.50 

1 

2 

1 


I 
2 

I 




Brass bearings 




Bell metal 




Yellow brass 




Gun metal 




Fine solder 




Plumber's solder 






Cast-iron solder 






Babbitt metal . . 


1 




Metal to expand in cooling . 




9 
9 


I 












Hard bronze for lathe bearings . 


80 


20 







209 



2IO 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



CHILLED-ROLL IRON 



No. 

of 

Teat. 


Approx. 

Diameter 

of Bar. 

Inches. 


Exact 

Diameter 

of Bar. 

Inches. 


Breaking 

Load. 
Pounds. 


Area 

of Bar. 

Sq. Inches. 


Strength 

per Square 

Inch. 

Pounds. 


Deflection. 
Inches. 


I 

2 

3 


if 

1 1 6 


1. 140 

1-655 
1.968 


3-250 
9.500 

I5-250 


1. 021 
2. 151 
3.042 


3-183 
4-417 
5-OI3 


.105 
.090 
.085 



GUN-CARRIAGE IRON 



if 
iff 



1. 122 
1.664 
1.859 



2.780 

9.250 

11.820 



.988 
2.174 
2.714 



2.812 
4. 264 
4-355 



100 
no 
100 



CAR-WHEEL IRON 



ii 



I 1 6 



I-I74 
I.69O 

2.008 



2.200 

8. 100 
13-500 



1.082 
2. 244 
3-167 



2.033 
3.610 
4.263 



053 
070 

,072 



HEAVY MACHINERY IRON 



10 
II 

12 


If 

ill 


I. 187 

I-705 
2.00I 


2.800 

7.IOO 

I I . 9OO 


I. I06 
2.282 
3-143 


2-53° 
3. Ill 

3-786 


.092 
.072 
.079 



STOVE-PLATE IRON 



13 

14 
i5 



1* 



1. 182 

i-745 
2.047 



2.500 
6.050 
9.900 



1.097 
2.391 
3.288 



2.288 

2-53° 
3. on 



.117 
.078 
.081 



BESSEMER IRON 



16 


ii 


I-I7S 


2.150 


1.084 


1-983 


.100 


17 


if 


1.698 


5-5oo 


2. 263 


2-43° 


.100 


18 


itt 


1. 991 


8.900 


3-112 


2.860 


.085 


19 


1 m.square 


•994 


i-757 


.988 


1.778 


-150 



CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF IRONS DESCRIBED ABOVE 


Class of Iron. 


Silicon. 


Sul- 
phur. 


Man- 
ganese. 


Phos- 
phorus. 


Com 

bined 

Carbon 


Graph- 
itic 
Carbon 


Total 
Carbon 


Chill iron 

Gun-metal 

Car- wheel 

General machinery. 

Bessemer iron .... 


.84 

-73 

.78 

1.30 

2.47 

1.52 


.071 

-059 
.132 

-053 
.094 

•059 


-285 
.408 

-3°6 
. 224 
. 265 
.326 


-547 
-453 
.364 
-433 
.508 
-083 


.61 

-76 
I.07 

-58 
-19 
-49 


2.45 
2-47 
2.36 

3-3* 
4.00 

3-73 


3.06 
3- 2 3 
3-43 
3-89 
4.19 
4.22 



CAST-IRON ALLOYS 



211 





SIZE AND CAPACITY OF FOUNDRY LADLES 






Capacity 

in 
Pounds. 


Inside Dimensions. 


Allows for Daub- 
ing. 


Allows 




Diameter. 


Depth. 
Inches. 


A ? Bot_ At £ 
torn. ~ c k 

Inches. * nc 


ides. 

hes. 


at Top 
over 




Top. 
Inches. 


Bottom. 
Inches. 


Capacity. 
Inches. 


, 


50 


8.25 


6.25 


6 


-50 


375 


.50 


3 

J3 


IOO 


IO 


9 


9-5o 




50 




5o 


'V ft 


I50 


II 


10 


10.50 




50 




50 


d -0 


200 


12 


11 


11.50 




50 




5o 


*T3 — 


250 


13 


12 


12.50 




50 




5o 




300 


14 


12.50 


13 




50 




5o 


HJ 


350 


14-5° 


13 


I3-50 




50 




5o 




400 
500 


15-50 
16.50 


14 
15 


14.50 
i5-5o 


1-25 
I.25 


75 
75 




75 




75 




600 


17-50 


16 


17 


1-25 


75 




75 




700 


18 


16.50 


I7-50 


1-25 


75 




•75 


T3 


800 


18.50 


17 


18 


1.25 


75 




■75 




1,000 


20.50 


18.50 


I9-50 


I.50 I 




2 


C 


1,200 


21.50 


I9-50 


21 


1.50 I 




2 


U 


1,500 


23 


21 


22 


I.50 I 




2 


2,000 


25-50 


23-5o 


24.50 


1.50 I 




2.5O 




2,500 


27 


25 


26 


1.50 I 




2.50 




3,000 

3>5°° 


28.50 
30 


26 
27-50 


27-5o 
29 


I.50 I 
I.50 I 




2.5O 




2.50 


to 
c 


4,000 


31-50 


28.50 


3° 


I.50 I 




3 


Eh 

3 


4,5°° 


33-50 


30-50 


32 


2 I 


■50 


3 


o 
a, 

j3 


5,000 


34-50 


31 


33 


2 I 


■50 


3 


6,000 


3°-5o 


33 


35 


2 I 


■50 


3 


1« 


8,000 


40.50 


3 6 -5o 


38.50 


2.50 I 


■75 


3 


10,000 


43-5° 


39 


41 


2-5° I 


•75 


3.5o 


^ & 


12,000 


45-5o 


4i 


43-5° 


2.50 I 


■75 


3.5o 


T3 
p3 


14,000 


48 


43 


45-5o 


2.50 I 


■75 


3.5o 


<U 


16,000 


50 


45 


47.5o 


2-5° I 


-75 


3.5o 




18,000 


52 


46.50 


49 


2.50 I 


•75 


3-5o 


Ih 


20,000 


53-5o 


48 


50.50 


2.50 I 


-75 


3-5o 




24,000 


57 


5i 


54 


2.5O 2 




3-5° 



SHRINKAGE OF, CASTINGS (Approximate Values only) 


Metal. 


Inches per Lineal Foot. 


Cast iron 


-125 

.1875 
.19 

• 3 I2 5 
.25 


Brass 


Tin L . . . . 


Zinc 


Steel 





212 



FOUNDRY PRACTICE 



WEIGHTS OF CASTINGS FROM PATTERNS WHERE NO 
CORES ARE USED 



A Pattern Weighing 
1 Pound made of 



Mahogany, Nassau . . 
' ' Honduras 

Spanish . 

Pine, red 

' ' white 

' ' yellow 

Oak 



Will Weigh when Cast in 



Cast Iron, 


Zinc, 


Copper, 


Yellow 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Brass, 
Pounds. 


10.7 


10.4 


12.8 


12.2 


12.9 


12.7 


15-3 


14.6 


8-5 


8.2 


IO. I 


9-7 


12-5 


12. I 


14.9 


14.2 


16.7 


l6. I 


19.8 


19.O 


14. 1 


I3.6 


16.7 


16.0 


9.0 


8.6 


10.4 


IO.I 



Gun 
Metal, 
Pounds. 



12-5 

15.O, 

9.9 

14.6 

i9-5 
16.5 
10.9 



WEIGHTS OF ONE CUBIC FOOT OF METALS WITH 
THEIR TENSILE STRENGTH 



Metal. 


Weight of 1 Cubic 
Foot in Pounds. 


Tensile Strength 

per Square Inch 

in Pounds. 


Cast iron 


45° 
525 
480 
490 
166.5 


16,500 
36,000 
50,000 
78,000 
26,800 


Ordinary brass 


Wrought iron 


Hard structural steel 


Aluminum 





WEIGHT IN POUNDS OF ONE CUBIC INCH OF DIFFERENT 

METALS 



Brass (average) 3023 

Bronze 306 

Copper, cast 3135 

Gold, pure 6965 

Iron, cast 2622 

Iron, wrought 282 

Lead, cast 415 

Steel 281 

Tin, cast 263 



Zinc, cast . , 
Antimony . 
Bismuth . . 
Manganese . 
Silver . . . . . 
Platinum . . 
Cadmium . 
Potassium . 



26 
242 

355 
289 

378 

735 
312 
031 



CAST-IRON ALLOYS 



213 



MIXTURES FOR PHOSPHOR-BRONZE BEARING METAL 



Number of 
Mixture. 


Copper. 
Per Cent. 


Lead. 
Per Cent. 


Tin. 
Per Cent. 


Phosphorus. 
Per Cent. 


I 
2 

3 


79.0 

79-7 
79-7 


IO. 

9-5 

10. 


10 
10 
10 


I.O 
.8 
•3 



SIZE AND CAPACITY OF CRUCIBLES 



Number of Crucible. 



Outside Height. 


Greatest Outside 


Inches. 


Diameter. 




Inches. 


3-5° 


3 


4 


3-25 


4.625 


3-75 


5-125 


4-25 


6 


4.625 


6.50 


5-125 


7-25 


5-875 


8.25 


6.25 


8.625 


6.50 


9-125 


7-25 


9.625 


7-75 


10 


8.125 


10.625 


8.625 


11. 125 


9 


n-75 


9-375 


12.25 


9-75 


12.625 


9-875 


13 


10.50 


13-75 


io-75 


14.125 


11.25 


14-75 


Ji-75 


15-50 


12.50 


16.125 


13 



Capacity in 
Molten Metal. 
Pounds. 



I 
2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

8 
10 
12 

14 
16 
18 

20 

25 
3° 
35 
40 
45 
5o 
60. 
70. 
80, 
100 



3 
6 

9 

12 

15 

18 
24 
30 
36 
42 
48 

54 
60 

75 
90 

105 
120 

i35 
150 
180 
210 
240 
3°o 



GLOSSARY 

Air-dried. — The surface drying of cores left in open air 
too long before placing in oven. Molds left open also dry 
out on surface, causing crumbling or washing when metal is 
poured. 

Air hoist. — A piston and cylinder suspended from an 
overhead track or traveling crane and operated by compressed 
air. For hoisting ladles, flasks, or weights in the foundry. 

Alloy. — Any compound of two or more metals, as copper 
and zinc to form brass. 

Anchor. — A contrivance used to hold parts of the mold 
down or together. See Pulley anchor. 

Arm. — The portion of a pulley which connects the hub and 
the rim. 

Ash pit. — The space underneath a fire box, in a core oven 
or brass furnace, to receive the ashes which fall from the 
grate. 

Bars. — The framework inside the cope of a molding flask, 
to retain the molding sand in position while lifting or hand- 
ling the flask, and also to resist the pressure of metal when 
casting. 

Batten. — A piece attached to a thin, flat pattern for the 
purpose of strengthening and keeping it straight; not a part 
of the pattern nor to be a part of the casting. It should be 
marked "stop-off," and the recess formed by this piece in 
the mold should be filled up or stopped off after the pattern 
has been removed from the sand. 

215 



2l6 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Bed charge. — The first or lower charge of coke in a cupola, 
reaching from the bed or bottom to a point above the tuyeres. 

Bedding in. — The process of molding a pattern by em- 
bedding it in the sand in the exact position in which it is to be 
cast. 

Bellows. — An instrument for forcing air through a tube. 
Used in foundries for the purpose of blowing away loose sand 
from the molds. 

Binders. — The various articles used in loam, core sand, 
and facings for the purpose of holding the sand together 
when dry, such as glue water, molasses, linseed oil, flour, 
etc. 

Blacking. — A thin facing of carbon, consisting of pul- 
verized charcoal or plumbago, by which the fusible ingre- 
dients of the sand are protected from the intense heat of the 
metal when casting. Blacking is sometimes applied as a 
powder to green sand molds ; but for dry sand, loam, or skin- 
dried molds and cores wet blacking or black wash is used. 
Wet blacking consists of common blacking mixed with water 
thickened with clay to the consistency of thin paint. Wet 
blacking somewhat hardens the surface of a mold when dry. 

Black lead. — See Graphite. 

Blast. — The current of atmospheric air delivered from the 
blower or fan under pressure through the blast pipe and 
tuyeres into the cupola. 

Blast gauge. — The blast gauge is a device to determine 
the amount of pressure in the wind belt or jacket of a cupola 
while in operation. This instrument is a form of mano- 
meter. 

Blast pipe. — The pipe through which the air passes from 
the fan or blower to the cupola. 

Blower.— A box with revolving wings or vanes inside, so 
constructed and arranged as to force a pressure of air through 
the blast pipe into the cupola. 



GLOSSARY 217 

Blow-holes. — Holes occurring in castings, due to air and 
gas in the metal and in the mold when casting. Blow-holes 
are the result of insufficient venting and of moisture. 

Bott stick. — A stick of wood or bar of iron with one flat 
end on which to place a ball of clay in stopping the flow of 
iron from the cupola. 

Bottom board. — The board on which the flask rests when 
in position to cast. It may be of iron or wood. 

Breast. — The clay front built in the opening over the 
spout of the cupola and through which the tapping port 
is made. 

Bricking up. — Building up the skeleton of a loam mold 
by means of bricks cemented together with loam. 

Bull ladle. — A vessel for handling molten metal. It is 
placed in a shank and is carried by two or more men. 

Burning on, or casting on. — The process of mending 
cracked or broken castings or of adding on metal, where the 
casting is unsound or incomplete, by means of flowing molten 
metal over the part to be treated until fusion takes place. 

Burnt sand. — Sand which has had contact with molten 
metal. The sand which forms the face of a mold invariably 
becomes burnt. 

Butting, or butt ramming. — The process of butting or 
ramming the sand with the flat end of the rammer. 

Camber. — The curving of certain types of casting in cool- 
ing, due to want of symmetry in their sectional forms, by 
reason of which one portion cools off more rapidly than the 
other, causing distortion of figure in the longitudinal direc- 
tion. 

Carrier. — A casting which is attached to the arm of a 
gear molding machine and to which the tooth block is 
attached. 

Casting. — A piece of metal work obtained by pouring 
molten metal into a mold. 



2l8 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Casting on. — The same as burning on. 

Changing hook. — An S crane hook which is double at one 
end and which is useful in transferring from one crane to 
another. 

Chaplet. — Chaplets are iron supports to retain a core in 
its proper position where core prints can not be used. 

Chaplet block. — A block of wood rammed in the sand to 
receive the spike of a chaplet nail. The block affords the 
requisite steadiness to the chaplet when in position. 

Chaplet nails. — A chaplet with one end flat and the other 
a sharp point to be driven into the bottom board or into 
a block of wood rammed up in the sand which forms the 
mold. 

Charcoal. — Coal made by charring wood. It is used in 
drying molds. Oak charcoal pulverized is used for the pur- 
pose of blackening molds. 

Cheek. — An intermediate part of a mold where more than 
two parts are necessary. 

Chill. — A metal form placed in a mold or forming a portion 
of the mold against which the iron is poured to produce a 
chilled casting. 

Chilled casting. — A casting whose surface is hardened by 
pouring molten iron against a chill. 

Cinder bed. — A bed or layer of cinders or coke placed 
below a pit mold for the purpose of carrying off the gases that 
pass downward. The cinder bed is connected to the surface 
by a vent pipe. 

Clamps — are wrought or cast-iron bars whose ends form a 
right angle. They are useful in binding together the top and 
bottom of a flask while pouring the metal. 

Clamping. — Placing the clamps in their proper position on 
the flask when the mold is completed. 

Clay wash. — A mixture of clay and water. 

Coke bed. — See Cinder bed. 



GLOSSARY 



219 



Cold shots. — Small globular particles of metal which are 
formed by the first splashing of metal in a mold and which 
harden quickly and do not amalgamate with the other metal 
in the mold. 

Cold-shuts — are produced by pouring the metal too cold 
or too slowly into the mold and are due to imperfect amalga- 
mation of the metal in the mold. They may also be caused 
by gases in the mold, arising from the use of facing sand con- 
taining too great a percentage of sea coal. 

Contraction. — See Shrinkage. 

Cope. — The top part of a flask or mold. 

Core. — A body of sand in the mold for forming interior 
openings or holes in the casting. 

Core barrel. — A hollow bar or pipe on which a cylindrical 
core is formed. The barrel gives the core strength, and also 
openings through the sides, affording vent for the gases gener- 
ated in casting the metal around the core. 

Core board. — A board whose edge is profiled to a sectional 
form of a desired core. 

Core box. — A box in which a core is to be formed or molded. 
Its interior shape to be the same as the outside form of core 
desired. 

Core carriage.— A carriage upon which the cores are 
placed after being molded and on which they are conveyed 
into the drying oven. 

Core irons. — Rods or bars of iron rammed up in a core to 
give it strength. 

Core lathe. — A frame having V's or bearings in which to 
place a core barrel provided with a crank, on which barrel a 
core is to be formed and trued up by revolving the core against 
a sweep which forms the desired shape of the core. 

Core mixture. — A core sand dampened and mixed with 
a binder in such proportions that when dry it will become 
hard. 



220 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Core oven. — An oven in which to bake or dry cores after 
molding them. 

Core plate. — A plate on which cores are formed or placed 
while drying. 

Core print. — An attachment or projection on a pattern 
which forms a seat or pocket in the sand in which the core is 
to be placed in the mold after the pattern has been removed. 

Core rope. — Ropes or strings used for forming vents in 
crooked cores, from which rods or wires could not be with- 
drawn without damage to the core. 

Core sand. — Any sharp sea sand or nearly pure silica. 

Core trestles. — Upright standards or trestles whose tops 
are provided with V-shaped recesses or bearings in which to 
place the ends of a core bar or barrel while revolving to sweep 
up a core. 

Core wash. — See Blacking. 

Crane. — A device for lifting and moving heavy weights in 
a foundry, such as flasks, weights, and ladles of molten metal. 

Crane ladle. — See Ladle. 

Crushing. — Compressing the sand in the mold by too 
great a strain on the clamps after the pattern has been with- 
drawn, causing the mold to crumble and sand to fall into the 
mold. 

Crystalline fracture. — Where the face of the break shows 
a coarse formation of crystals. 

Cupola. — A cylindrical furnace for melting iron. A 
cupola is lined with fire-brick and provided with ports or 
tuyeres near its base through which a pressure of air is 
forced. 

Cutting over. — The process of shoveling over the sand to 
obtain an even mixture and temper. 

Daubing. — Lining or plastering up the interior of a cupola 
or ladle with clay or molding sand. The operation is per- 
formed with the hands. 



GLOSSARY 221 

Dowel. — A pin of wood or metal used to hold the parts 
of a divided pattern in their respective positions while they are 
being rammed in the sand. 

Draft. — The allowance or slight taper made on a pattern 
to aid in its removal from the sand after being rammed up. 
The portion of the pattern at the parting line of the mold 
must be larger than that extending into the cope or drag. 

Drag. — The lower part of a mold when in position to be 
cast. 

Draw. — The casting draws when the shrinkage causes 
depressions of the surface or openings in the interior. See 
Drawing. x * 

Drawback. — A section of a mold rammed up separate 
from the drag and cope and parted by a plate or piece of 
cloth, and which may be drawn back for the convenience 
of the molder in removing the pattern or in patching the 
mold. 

Drawback plate. — The iron plate on which a drawback 
is rammed up. 

Drawing. — Removing the pattern from the sand after the 
mold has been formed, also increasing the depth of a mold 
without altering the dimensions of the pattern by drawing the 
pattern a part of the length upward and ramming the sand 
around its upper portion. 

Draw plate. — A plate attached to a pattern for the pur- 
pose of receiving the rapping iron and lifting screw. 

Draw spike. — A tool pointed at one end to be driven into 
the pattern for the purpose of lifting it from the sand. 

Drop-out. — The whole or part of the sand falling out of 
the cope of a mold while turning over or closing a flask. 

Drying. — The process of evaporating moisture from a 
mold by means of hot air injected, or of a charcoal fire basket, 
or by baking in an oven. 

Dry sand. — Mixtures of sand which, after being dried in 



222 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

an oven or otherwise, become hard and better resist the 
strain from molten metal. 

Dull iron. — Iron which has not been heated to a proper 
temperature, or which has been allowed to remain in the ladle 
too long before pouring. Dull iron causes seams, cold-shuts, 
and unsound castings. 

Facing. — Any material used to mix with the sand for the 
purpose of preventing the fusion of the sand and the metal. 
Pulverized sea coal is commonly used. 

Facing sand. — The mixture of sand which forms the face 
of the mold. 

Fan. — An apparatus provided with revolving wings enclosed 
within a case for the purpose of forcing air into the blast pipe 
of a cupola. 

Feeder head. — A body of molten metal contained in a 
riser or opening above a mold for the purpose of supplying 
metal to the mold when shrinkage takes place. 

Feeding. — Forcing the metal into the mold from the feed- 
ing head during the time it is liquid by means of an iron rod 
kept in motion vertically in the feeding head. It is some- 
times termed " pumping " a mold. 

Feeding rod. — A wrought-iron bar used for the purpose of 
feeding a mold. 

Fin. — A thin projection on the casting at the parting line 
of the mold, caused by an imperfect joint. 

Fire-clay. — A kind of clay which will sustain intense heat 
and which is used in furnaces, cupolas, and ladle linings. 

Flask. — A box or frame in which a mold is formed. A 
flask must consist of two or more parts and may be made of 
either wood or metal. 

Flow-off gate. — A vertical passage through which the 
metal flows after the mold has been filled. Its top is lower 
than the level of the pouring gate. 

Flux. — Any material used in a melting furnace or cupola 



GLOSSARY 



223 



to cause the slag to become more liquid and more easily 
drawn off before tapping out the iron. Limestone is com- 
monly used. 

Follow-board. — A board which conforms to the form of 
the pattern and defines the parting surface of the drag. 

Foundation plate. — A plate of cast iron placed in the 
bottom of a mold to receive the spindle to maintain a sweep. 

Founding. — The casting of metal in molds. 

Fusing. — The iron and sand are said to fuse when a hard 
coating of sand adheres to the metal after casting, due to the 
heat of the molten metal. 

Gaggers — are made of iron in the shape of the letter L 
and are used for the purpose of anchoring the sand to be lifted 
in the cope of a mold. 

Gangway. — The passages between the molding floors and 
leading from the cupola. The gangway is usually laid with 
iron plates over which trucks or ladle carriages are run. 

Gate. — The terminus of the runner where the metal enters 
the mold. The opening through the cope left by the gate 
stick is commonly called the gate. 

Gate cutter. — A piece of thin sheet metal bent to the 
shape of the letter U. It is used to cut the runners which 
conduct the metal to the mold. 

Gate stick. — A wooden pin or stick used by the molder to 
form the opening leading from the pouring basin to the runner. 
It is placed in position before the sand is rammed in the 
cope. 

Grab hook. — Hooks connected by short chains or rods for 
the purpose of attaching loads to the crane hook. 

Graphite. — Carbon in one of its conditions, distinguished 
by its usually crystallizing in foliated, six-sided prisms, though 
often massive, by its softness, by its metallic lustre, and by 
leaving a dark lead-colored trace on paper. It is often called 
plumbago or black lead. 



224 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Green sand. — Common molding sand suitably tempered 
to form molds for metal without subsequent drying. 

Gutters. — Shallow channels cut at the parting of a mold 
for the purpose of receiving the vents which are led off at the 
parting and of conducting them to a relief vent. 

Hand ladle. — See Ladle. 

Hard ramming. — Ramming the sand in a mold until hard. 
Some molds should be rammed hard to resist the pressure of 
the metal. 

Hatching up. — Cutting or roughening the surface of a 
mold for the purpose of better holding new sand which may 
be added in patching. 

Hay rope. — Hay twisted or spun to the form of a rope, 
used to wind around a core barrel or hollow bar in striking 
up round cores or loam. The hay holds the sand or loam to 
the bar and also affords escape for the gases. 

Hot metal. — Metal which is in its liquid state. Light and 
thin castings should be poured with hot metal. 

Ladle. — An iron vessel lined with fire-clay and used in 
handling molten metal from the cupola to the mold. Hand 
ladles are carried by one man and bull ladles by two or more. 
Crane ladles are handled by the crane. 

Leveling. — Making a bed of sand level by the use of parallel 
strips, a straight edge, and a level. 

Leveling strips. — Parallel strips used in leveling sand 
beds. 

Lifter. — A tool used for removing loose sand from the 
bottom of deep molds. 

Lifting screw. — An iron rod with a screw or thread cut at 
one end and an eye or loop at the other. The screw may be 
used in the wood pattern and the thread in a tapped plate 
attached to the pattern. 

Lift off. — To remove a portion of a mold after ramming 
up. 



GLOSSARY 



225 



Loam. — Loam sand is a mixture of sand, clay, and venting 
material, such as horse manure, which gives a firm, hard, but 
open-grained body when dry. The mixture must be regu- 
lated by the class of castings for which the loam is to be used. 

Loam board. — A board the edge of which is profiled to a 
sectional form of a mold which it is to strike up. It is swept 
around a vertical bar to which it is bolted. 

Loam mold. — A mold constructed of loam. 

Loam plate. — A plate of iron cast in an open mold and 
studded with spikes upon which the brickwork of a loam mold 
is built. 

Loose piece. — A portion or projection made detachable 
from the body of a pattern for convenience in molding. 

Melting zone. — A space above the tuyeres in a cupola 
where the greatest heat is obtained. 

Mold. — The matrix or reverse form of a pattern made in 
sand. 

Molding. — The process of forming a mold in which metal 
is to be cast. 

Molding machine. — Any machine by which the operation 
of molding is performed or the drawing of a pattern is made 
safe and expeditious. 

Molding sand. — Sand used for the purpose of forming a 
mold, and possessing the quality of resisting the pressure of 
molten metal as well as the heat. It must also be porous or 
open when compressed in order to allow the free escape of 
the gases generated by the heat of the metal. 

Nowel. — The bottom portion of a mold when in position 
to cast. Commonly called drag. 

Old sand. — Sand which has been used for the purpose of 
molding until it becomes old, black, and burnt from contact 
with the molten metal. 

Open sand molding. — Molds formed in the floor of the 
foundry and having no cope or covering. Only castings 



226 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

having one flat side or surface can be formed this way. The 
mold must in all cases be perfectly leveled. 

Parting sand. — Sand used for the purpose of preventing 
two parts of a mold from uniting. It causes the sand to part 
when the flask is opened after ramming. Sharp sand or 
burned core sand is commonly used. 

Patching. — The process of repairing a mold after the pat- 
tern has been removed from the sand. 

Pattern. — A model from which to form a mold; its im- 
pression in the sand forming a mold in which to pour molten 
metal to form a casting. 

Peeling. — A casting is said to peel when the molding sand 
and iron do not fuse. After the casting has cooled the surface 
of the metal is left smooth and free from sand. 

Pit molding. — Forming a mold in a pit dug in a foundry 
floor. Light pit molding is usually of green sand. 

Plate anchor. — The anchor used in a pulley anchor having 
plates to cover the surfaces between the arms. 

Plate molding. — Dividing the pattern at its centre and 
placing each half on one side of a parting board which is pro- 
vided with pin-holes corresponding with the pins of inter- 
changeable flasks. The drag and cope may be rammed on 
opposite sides of the board, and after the board has been 
removed the flask may be closed. 

Plumbago. — A mineral consisting chiefly of carbon. It is 
used for blacking and for facing. It is properly called graph- 
ite, but often called black lead. 

Pouring. — The emptying of the molten metal from the 
ladle into the pouring basin or gate of a mold. 

Pouring basin. — A reservoir or basin formed on the cope 
of a mold to receive the molten metal and from which it flows 
into the gate. 

Pulley anchor. — The part of the mold of a pulley between 
the arms and the face of the cope. 



GLOSSARY 



227 



Pulley foot. — A cone or pyramid placed in the anchor of 
a pulley mold for the purpose of ensuring removing and re- 
placing to the same position. The pulley foot may be sepa- 
rate and placed in the anchor while ramming, or it may be 
a part of the anchor, as in a plate anchor. 

Rammer. — A tool used for the purpose of ramming the 
sand in the flask and around the pattern. The rammer is 
usually made of iron. One end is called the pein and the 
other the butt. The pein end is rectangular in section and 
the butt end is round and flat. 

Rapping.— The process of loosening the pattern from the 
sand while yet in the mold. A bar is inserted in the pattern 
and is rapped sidewise in every direction until the sand com- 
presses and is free from the pattern, after which the pattern 
may be easily withdrawn. 

Rapping bar. — A bar of iron either pointed or threaded 
at one end to be inserted into a pattern for the purpose of 
rapping. 

Rapping hole. — A hole bored in a pattern or in a rapping 
plate let into the pattern to receive the rapping bar. 

Rapping plate. — An iron plate screwed to or let into a 
pattern having a hole to receive the rapping bar. 

Reverse mold. — A dummy mold on which a portion of an 
actual mold is to be rammed. 

Riddle. — A sieve for sifting sand for the purpose of mold- 
ing. 

Riser. — An opening from the mold to the top of the flask 
through which gases may escape and the surplus metal rise 
above the upper surface of the casting. 

Runner. — A channel cut in the sand to conduct the metal 
from the pouring basin to the gate. 

Sand sifter. — A mechanical device for the purpose of sift- 
ing sand. 



228 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Scabbed castings. — Scabbed castings are those on the 
surface of which rough and uneven projections appear. 
Scabs occur from various causes, such as imperfect vent- 
ing, improper ramming, unsuitable material, too rich facing 
sand, excess of moisture, etc. 

Scrap. — That which is of no use in its present form. The 
old castings which are only good for the metal in them, or 
castings which cannot be used, are called scrap. 

Sea coal. — Sea coal is ordinary bituminous coal. When 
pulverized and mixed with molding sand, it is called cea-coal 
facing. 

Shrinkage. — Contraction of metal while cooling after cast- 
ing. 

Shrink-holes. — Openings in the surface or in the interior 
of a casting caused by the shrinkage of the metal in cooling. 

Sinking head. — The prolongation upon a casting verti- 
cally to supply metal to replace shrinkage. The excess length 
is cut off, leaving the desired casting. 

Skeleton core box. — A frame or skeleton in which to form 
a core without a full core box. Skeleton core boxes are com- 
monly used in forming one-half of a round core by means of a 
strike stick. 

Skim gate. — An arrangement of gates, runners, and risers 
which will effect the separation of the impurities before the 
metal enters the mold. 

Skimmer. — A bar of iron usually bent to the shape of the 
letter L at one end for the purpose of preventing the slag and 
dirt from following the metal as it flows from the ladle to the 
pouring basin of a mold. 

Skimming. — The holding back of the slag and dirt on the 
surface o\ molten metal while being poured from the ladle 
into the mold. 

Skin-drying. — The process of drying the face of a mold. 

Slag. — The refuse from the cupola, caused by impurities 



GLOSSARY 229 

of the metal and fuel, as well as by the fused compounds of 
the silica and alumina in the lining and daubing. 

Slag hole. — A port hole in a cupola slightly below the level 
of the tuyeres for the purpose of tapping out the slag before 
tapping the iron. 

Sleeking. — See Slicking. 

Slick. — A tool used for smoothing the surface of a mold. 
An ordinary trowel may be used for a slick. 

Slicking. — Smoothing and finishing the surface of a 
mold with a trowel or slicking tool. Sometimes spelled 
sleeking. 

Sling. — A device made of iron or of rope for the purpose 
of handling flasks or weights. The sling is used to connect 
the crane to a weight or to the trunnion of a flask. 

Snap-flask. — A small flask used in bench molding having 
a hinge at one corner and a latch at the diagonal corner. 

Soldiers. — Strips of wood used by the molder to strengthen 
or to anchor bodies of sand. 

Socket. — The base for supporting the spindle in a sweep 
mold. See Foundation plate. 

Spongy. — A casting is spongy when honeycombed by 
blow-holes. The centre of a casting may be spongy from 
shrinkage of the metal in solidifying. 

Spout. — A box or gutter lined with clay to conduct the 
molten metal from the tapping hole to the ladle. 

Spray can. — A can fitted with a blow-pipe or bellows so 
that the liquid in the can may be forced out in a spray or 
mist. 

Sprue. — The casting formed in the gate of a mold. 

Staking. — The setting of the cope on a pit mold by means 
of stakes. 

Stopping off. — The process of filling up a portion of the 
mold which is not desired to be cast. 

Stopping-off piece. — A piece used as a guide or template 



230 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

in stopping off. A stop-off piece is a duplicate of the desired 
casting at the point stopped off on the pattern. 

Stopping over. — Filling up with sand the space over a 
core placed in a print pocket. 

Straining. — The distortion of a mold by the pressure of 
the metal, usually caused by insufficient ramming of th e 
sand. 

Strike stick. — A straight edge or form beveled at its edge 
for the purpose of cutting the sand or loam in building up a 
mold or core. 

Stripping plate. — The plate which holds the sand in place 
while the pattern is being drawn. 

Strong sand. — Molding sand is called strong when it con- 
tains clay and when upon drying it becomes hard and will not 
crumble. 

Swab. — A substitute for a brush for dampening sand in a 
mold or around a pattern before it has been removed from the 
sand. Swabs are usually made of hemp. 

Swabbing. — The dampening with a swab of the joint 
edges or interior sections of a mold for the purpose of strength- 
ening the sand and causing it to be more plastic and coherent. 

Sweep. — A board having the profile of a desired mold. A 
sweep must be attached to a spindle and revolved around the 
spindle to give the mold the proper form. 

Tap hole. — The hole through the breast of a cupola through 
which the metal flows. 

Tapping. — Opening the port of a foundry cupola for the 
purpose of allowing the metal to flow into the ladle. 

Tapping bar. — A long bar of iron pointed at one end and 
having a loop at the other to serve as a hand hold. It is used 
for the purpose of opening the tap hole in a cupola to allow 
the metal to flow out. 

Tempering sand. — The process of dampening and mixing 
the sand preparatory to ramming a mold. 



GLOSSARY 



23I 



Test bar. — A bar of iron cast for the purpose of testing 
the strength of the metal. 

Trammel. — Another name for a beam compass. 

Traveling crane. — An apparatus arranged on overhead 
tracks and so constructed as to move a load in any direction. 

Trowel. — A tool similar to a mason's trowel, used in slick- 
ing, patching, and finishing a mold. Trowels are of various 
shapes and sizes. 

Tucking. — Compressing the sand with the fingers under 
flask bars or around gaggers or soldiers where the rammer 
can not be used. 

Turning over. — The operation of inverting the drag of a 
mold with the pattern in the sand. The top and bottom are 
covered with boards, clamped up, and turned over. 

Turn-over board. — The board upon which a pattern is 
placed while ramming up the drag of a mold. 

Tuyeres. — The openings which admit the air blast to the 
interior of a cupola or blast furnace. 

Vents. — Any means provided for the escape of gases or of 
steam generated by contact of molten metal with cores or 
molding sand. 

Vent gutter. — A groove or an opening cut in the sand to 
conduct the gases away from the vents. 

Venting. — The process of making vent holes or openings 
in the mold by means of a vent wire, or otherwise to allow the 
gases to escape while casting. 

Vent strings. — Strings used for the purpose of venting 
crooked cores when wires or rods could not be employed 
without damaging the core. Sometimes wax strings are used 
and melted out in drying the core. 

Vent wire. — A small rod or wire used in forming a vent. 

Weak sand. — Sand having a very small percentage of clay, 
thus having but little strength at the usual temper and hard- 
ness. 



232 FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

Wedges. — Small V-shaped pieces for the purpose of block- 
ing under a clamp or over a chaplet. Wedges may be of 
wood or iron. 

Wet blacking. — See Black wash. 

Wind jacket. — The chamber surrounding a cupola into 
which the air is forced from the blast pipes and from which 
it enters the tuyeres leading to the cupola. 






INDEX 

Bedding in, 15. 

Blow-holes and shrink-holes, in. 

Brass, molding of, 199; founding of, 202; melting furnace for, 202; 

same for fuel oil or gas, 206. 
Burning on or casting on, 112. 

Castings, feeding of, 95; chilled, 172; malleable, 176; cleaning of, 
180; steel, 195. 

Cast-iron alloys, 208, 209. 

Chaplets, described, 100; setting and wedging of, 103. 

Clamping or weighting of cope and cores, 107. 

Columns, molding of, 44. 

Compressed air, 185. 

Coping out, 11. 

Cores, setting and venting of, 21, 98; cover, 37; described, 123; ram- 
ming of, 125; wires and rods for, 125; baking or drying of, 128; 
pasting of, 127; nearly submerged, 146. 

Core anchors, 144. 

Core barrel, 136. 

Core box, 138; skeleton core box, 139. 

Core-making machines, 150. 

Core mixtures, 134; core blacking mixtures, 135. 

Core ovens, 1 29. 

Core plates, 143. 

Cupola, preparing of, 155; tapping out and stopping up of, 160. 

Flasks, 74. 

Fly-wheels, methods of casting, 64. 
Follow-board, 115. 
Foundry blowers, 169. 
Foundry ladles, 166. 

Furnace cupola, 151; reverberatory, 162; brass melting, 202; same for 
fuel oil or gas, 206. 

G aggers, 88. 

Gears, molding of, 48. 

233 



234 INDEX 

Hay-rope machines, 136 

Loam mixtures, 67 
Loam molding, 66. 

Molding, bench, 114; plain, 1; with divided pattern, 8; open sand, 
18; of columns, 44; of gears, 48; pit, 59; loam, 66; brass, 199. 

Molding machines, 115. 

Molds, venting of, 19; parting of, 82; gating of, 83; patching of, 92; 
stopping off of, 94; crushing of, no; match for a, 115; dry sand, 53; 
finishing dry sand, 55; blacking dry sand, 55; drying dry sand, 56. 

Nailing or rodding, 91. 

Pneumatic chipping hammer, 188. 
Pneumatic crane, 185. 
Pneumatic hoist, 185. 
Pneumatic molding machine, 185. 
Pneumatic sand rammer, 188. 
Pneumatic sand sifter, 185. 
Pneumatic shaker, 189. 
Pouring basins, 88. 
Pulley anchors, 40. 
Pulley rings, 38. 

Risers, 85. 

Sand, molding, 69; tempering of, 69; cutting over of, 69; riddling of, 

71; facing, 72; ramming of, 77; parting, 83. 
Sand-blast machine, 189. 
Sand crusher, 194. 
Sand mixers, 194; centrifugal, 194. 
Sand sifter, rotary, 194. 
Shrinkage, in. 
Skim gates, 86. 
Soldiers, 90. 
Steel, casting of, 195. 
Sweeps and spindles', 60. 

Three-part work, 30. 
Tools, molders', 76. 
Tumbling barrels, 181. 

Vent gutters, 147. 



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Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments. 

i6mo, mor. 1 25 

Wilson's (H. N.) Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50 

Wilson's (W. L.) Elements of Railroad Track and Construction nmo, 2 00 

BRIDGES AND ROOFS. 

Boiler's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges. . 8vo, 2 00 

Burr and Falk's Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges 8vo, 5 00 

Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations 8vo, 3 00 

Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II. . . , Small 4to, 10 00 

Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 410, 5 00 

Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 

French and Ives's Stereotomv 8vo, 

Greene's Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone 8vo, 

Bridge Trusses 8vo, 

Roof Trusses 8vo, 

Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses 8vo, 

Heller's Stresses in Structures and the Accompanying Deformations 8vo, 

Howe's Design of Simple Roof- trusses in Wood and Steel 8vo, 

Symmetrical Masonry Arches 8vo, 

Treatise on Arches 8vo, 



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Johnson, Bry* i, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of 

Modern Framed Structures Small 4to, 10 oo 

Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges: 

Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses 8vo, 2 50 

Part II. Graphic Statics 8vo, 2 50 

Part III. Bridge Design 8vo, 2 50 

Part IV. Higher Structures 8vo, 2 50 

Morison's Memphis Bridge Oblong 4to, 10 00 

Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches. 

8vo, 2 00 

Waddell's De Pontibus, Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers i6mo, mor, 2 00 

* Specifications for Steel Bridges i2mo, 50 

Waddell and Harrington's Bridge Engineering. (In Preparation.) 

Wright's Designing of Draw-spans. Two parts in one volume 8vo, 3 50 

HYDRAULICS. 

Barnes's Ice Formation 8vo, 3 00 

Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from 

an Orifice. (Trautwine) : 8vo, 2 00 

Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 00 

Church's Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels. 

Oblong 4to, paper, 1 50 

Hydraulic Motors 8vo, 2 00 

Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00 

Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems i6mo, mor. 2 50 

Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power nmo, 3 00 

Folwell's Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 00 

Frizell's Water-power 8vo, 5 00 

Fuertes's Water and Public Health nmo, 1 50 

Water-filtration Works nmo, 2 50 

Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in 

Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine). 8vo, 4 00 

Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It .: Large nmo, 1 50 

Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, 3 00 

Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water- works 8vo, 2 50 

Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal 

Conduits 8vo, 2 00 

Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge 8vo, 2 00 

Hubbard and Kiersted's Water- works Management and Maintenance 8vo, 4 co 

* Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribution of Water Power. . . .8vo, 3 00 
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.) 

8vo, 4 00 

Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 00 

* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 

* Molitor's Hydraulics of Rivers, Weirs and Sluices 8vo, 2 00 

Richards's Laboratory Notes on Industrial Water Analysis, fin Press). 
Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water- 
supply. Large 8vo, 5 00 

* Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers 410, 6 00 

Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 00 

Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 5th Ed., enlarged 410, 6 00 

Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895 410, 10 00 

Whipple's Value of Pure Water Large nmo, 1 00 

Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables 8vo, 1 50 

Wilson's Irrigation Engineering Small 8vo, 4 00 

Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 300 

Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 00 

Turbines 8vo, 2 50 

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MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 



Baker's Roads and Pavements 8vo, 

Treatise on Masonry Construction 8vo, 

Birkmire's Architectural Iron and Steel 8vo, 

Compound Riveted Girders as Applied in Buildings 8vo, 

Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 

Bleininger's Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement. (In Preparation.) 

* Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 

Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering 8vo, 

Byrne's Highway Construction 8vo, 

Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction. 

i6mo, 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 

Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. 

Vol. I. Kinematics, Statics, Kinetics Small 4to, 7 50 

Vol. II. The Stresses in Framed Structures, Strength of Materials and 

Theory of Flexures Small 4to, 

♦Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters 8vo, 

Stone and Clay Products used in Engineering. (In Preparation.) 

Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 

Graves's Forest Mensuration 8vo, 

Green's Principles of American Forestry i2mo, 

* Greene's Structural Mechanics 8vo, 

Holly and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments and Varnishes 

Large i2mo, 2 50 
Johnson's (C. M.) Chemical Analysis of Special Steels. (In Preparation.) 

Johnson's (J. B.) Materials of Construction Large 8vo, 

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 

Kidder's Architects and Builders' Pocket-book i6mo, 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 

Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles „ i2mo, 

Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning) 2 vols 8vo, 

Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 

Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials , .8vo, 

* Strength of Materials i2mo, 

Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users nmo, 

Morrison's Highway Engineering 8vo, 

Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations 8vo, 

Rice's Concrete Block Manufacture 8vo, 

Richardson'^ Modern Asphalt Pavements 8vo, 

Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction i6mo, mor. 

* Ries's Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses 8vo, 

Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 

*Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest... 121110, 

Snow's Principal Species of Wood 8 ™, 

Spalding's Hydraulic Cement i2mo, 

Text-book on Roads and Pavements i2mo, 

Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced 8vo, 

Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo, 

Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy 8vo, 

Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo » 

Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 

Constituents 8v0 » 

Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials 8vo, 

Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction.. 8vo, 
Waterbury's Cement Laboratory Manual i2mo, 



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Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on 

the Preservation of Timber 8vo, 2 00 

Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and 

Steel 8vo, 4 00 

RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 

Andrews's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers 3x5 inches, mor. 1 25 

Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 00 

Brooks's Handbook of Street Railroad Location i6mo, mor. 1 50 

Butt's Civil Engineer's Field-book i6mo, mor. 2 50 

Crandall's Railway and Other Earthwork Tables 8vo, 1 50 

Transition Curve i6mo, mor. 1 50 

* Crockett's Methods for Earthwork Computations 8vo, 1 50 

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book i6mo. mor. 5 00 

Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879) '. . . .Paper, 5 00 

Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25 

Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide. . . i6mo, mor. 2 50 
Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em- 
bankments 8vo, 1 00 

Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geodesy 

i6mo, mor. 1 50 

Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers i6mo, 1 00 

Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers i6mo, mor. 3 00 

Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers i6mo, mor. 3 00 

Raymond's Railroad Engineering. 3 volumes. 

Vol. I. Railroad Field Geometry. (In Preparation.) 

Vol. II. Elements of Railroad Engineering. . 8vo, 3 50 

Vol. III. Railroad Engineer's Field Book. (In Preparation.) 

Searles's Field Engineering i6mo, mor. 3 00 

Railroad Spiral i6mo, mor. 1 50 

Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork 8vo, 1 50 

*Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads. 

i2mo. mor. 2 50 

* Method of Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Embank- 

ments by the Aid of Diagrams 8vo, 2 00 

Webb's Economics of Railroad Construction Large nmo, 2 50 

Railroad Construction i6mo, mor. 5 00 

Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Small 8vo, 5 00 

DRAWING. 

Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 

* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 00 

* " " " Abridged Ed 8vo, 150 

Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, 1 00 

Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi- 
neers Oblong 4to, 2 50 

Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 00 

Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications 8vo, 2 50 

Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 2 00 

Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 00 

Elements of Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 50 

Jones's Machine Design: 

Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 1 50 

Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 00 

MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 3 00 

Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 00 

Mechanical Drawing 4to, 4 00 

Velocity Diagrams 8vo, 1 50 

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McLeod's Descriptive Geometry.,, Large i2mo, i 50 

* Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting 8vo, 1 50 

Industrial Drawing. (Thompson ) 8vo, 3 50 

Moyer's Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 2 00 

Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4 to, 5 00 

Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 00 

Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 3 00 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 00 

Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 00 

Smith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan) 8vo, 2 50 

Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design 8vo, 3 00 

* Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing Oblong 8vo, 1 25 

Warren's Drafting Instruments and Operations i2mo, 1 25 

Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 3 50 

Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50 

Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing i2mo, 1 00 

General Problems of Shades and Shadows 8vo, 3 00 

Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and 

Shadow i2mo, 1 00 

Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing i2mo, 1 50 

Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry i2mo, 1 25 

Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 2 50 

Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Hermann and 

Klein) 8vo, 5 00 

Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50 

Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering 8vo, 1 00 

Free-hand Perspective 8vo, 2 50 

Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry Large 8vo, 3 00 

ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS. 

* Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation, (von Ende) nmo, 

Andrews's Hand-Book for Street Railway Engineering 3X5 inches, mor. 

Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie) Large nmo, 

Anthony's Theory of Electrical Measurements. (Ball) i2mo, 

Benjamin's History of Electricity 8vo, 

Voltaic Cell 8vo, 

Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis 8vo, 

Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood)..8vo, 

* Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy i2mo, 

Mor. 
Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph 8vo, 

* Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam) nmo, 

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book .... i6mo, mor. 

Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery), (von Ende) 

nmo, 

Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess) 8vo, 

Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power nmo, 

Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay) 8vo, 

* Hanchett's Alternating Currents nmo, 

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, mor. 

* Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery 8vo, 

Holman's Precision of Measurements 8vo, 

Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests. .. .Large 8vc, 

* Karapetoff's Experimental Electrical Engineering 8vo, 

Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines 8vo, 

Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle) 8vo, 

Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard — Burgess).. i2mo, 
Lob's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz) 8vo, 

* Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribution of Water Fower . . . .8vo, 

1 1 



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* Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II, 8vo, each, 6 oo 

* Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light 8vo, 4 00 

Morgan's Outline of the Theory 01* Solution and its Results 12 mo, 1 00 

* Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers i2mo, 1 50 

Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (Fishback). . . . i2mo, 2 50 

* Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering 8vo, 2 50 

* Parshalland Hobart's Electric Machine Design 410, half mor. 12 50 

Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition. 

Large nmo, 3 50 

* Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee— Kinzbrunner). .. .8vo, 2 co 

Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. 1 8vo, 2 50 

Swapper's Laboratory Guide for Students in Physical Chemistry nmo, 1 00 

* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo, 1 50 

Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics Large nmo, 2 00 

Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo. 3 00 

LAW. 
Brennan's Handbook: A Compendium of Useful Legal Information for 

Business Men i6mo, mor. 5 . 00 

* Davis's Elements 01 Law 8vo, 2 50 

* Treatise on the Military Law of United States 8vo, 7 00 

* Sheep, 7 50 

* Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial . . . .Large nmo, 2 50 

Manual for Courts-martial i6mo, mor. 1 50 

Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00 

Sheep, 6 50 

Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 00 

Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi- 
tecture 8 vo 5 00 

Sheep, 5 50 

MATHEMATICS. 

Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo, 1 50 

Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry. (Bocher) nmo, 1 00 

^Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry 8vo, 1 00 

Byerley's Harmonic Functions 8vo, 1 00 

Chandler's Elements of the Infinitesimal Calculus i2mo, 2 00 

Coffin's Vector Analysis. (In Press.) 

Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations i2ino, 1 50 

* Dickson's College Algebra Large nmo, 1 50 

* Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations Large nmo, 1 25 

Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications 8vo, 2 50 

Fiske's Functions of a Complex Variable 8vo, 1 00 

Halsted's Elementary Synthetic Geometry 8vo, 1 50 

Elements of Geometry 8vo, 1 75 

* Rational Geometry 1 2mo, 1 50 

Hyde's Grassmann's Space Analysis 8vo, 1 00 

* Jonnson's (J B,) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size, paper, 15 

100 copies, 5 00 

* Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8X10 inches, 25 

10 copies, 2 00 

Johnson's (W. W.) Abridged Editions of Differential and Integral Calculus 

Large 12 mo, 1 vol. 2 50 

Curve -'racing in Cartesian Co-ordinates nmo, 1 00 

Differential Equations 8vo. t 00 

Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus Large nmo, 1 50 

Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus Large nmo, 1 50 

* Theoretical Mechanics nmo, 3 00 

Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares nmo, 1 50 

Treatise on Differential Calculus Lacge nmo, 3 00 

12 



Johnson's Treatise on the Integral Calculus Large nmo, 3 oo 

Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations. . Large nmo, 3 50 
Karapetofi's Engineering Applications of Higher Mathematics. (In Pre- 
paration.) 
Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory). .nmo, 2 00 

* Ludlow and Bass's Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other 

Tables 8vo, 3 00 

Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each, 2 00 

* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables 8vo, 1 00 

Macfarlane's Vector Analysis and Quaternions 8vo, 1 00 

McMahon's Hyperbolic Functions 8vo, 1 00 

Manning's Irrational Numbers and their Representation by Sequences and 

Series nmo, 1 25 

Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman and Robert 

S. Woodward L Octavo, each 1 00 

No. 1. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith. 
No. 2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted. 
No. 3. Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyper- 
bolic Functions, by James McMahon. No. 5. Harmonic Func- 
tions, by William E. Byerly. No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis, 
by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7. Probability and Theory of Errors, 
by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8. Vector Analysis and Quaternions, 
by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9. Differential Equations, by 
William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The Solution of Equations, 
by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of a Complex Variable, 
by Thomas S. Fiske. 

Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 

Merriman's Method of Least Squares 8vo, 

Solution of Equations 8vo, 

Rice and Johnson's Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols, in one. 

Large 12 mo, 

Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus Large nmo, 

Smith's History of Modern Mathematics 8vo, 

* Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real Infinitesimal Analysis of One 

Variable 8vo, 2 00 

* Waterbury's Vest Pocket Hand-Book of Mathematics for Engineers. 

2 IX 5s r inches, mor. 1 00 

Weld's Determinations 8vo, 1 co 

Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, 2 00 

Woodward's Probability and Theory of Errors 8vo, 1 00 

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 

Bacon's Forge Practice nmO) 1 50 

Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings nmo, 2 50 

Bair's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 

* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 00 

* " " " Abridged Ed 8vo, 150 

Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes nmo, 2 00 

* Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal 8vo, 3 50 

Carpenter's Experimental Engineering 8vo, 6 00 

Heating and Ventilating Buildings 8vo, 4 00 

Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine Large nmo, 4 00 

Compton's First Lessons in Metal Working nmo, 1 50 

Compton and De Groodt's Speed Lathe nmo, 1 50 

Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, 1 00 

Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En- 
gineers Oblong 410, 2 50 

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Cromwell's Treatise on Belts and Pulleys i2mo, 

Treatise on Toothed Gearing nmo, 

Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 

Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power, nmo, 

Rope Driving nmo, 

Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers nmo, 

Goss s Locomotive Sparks . 8vo, 

Greene's Pumping Machinery. (In Preparation.) 

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, mor. 

* Hobart and Ellis's High Speed Dynamo Electric Machinery 8vo, 

Hutton's Gas Engine. 8vo, 

Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Elements of Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Jones's Gas Engine. (In Press.) 
Machine Design: 

Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 

Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts.' 8vo, 

Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book i6mo, mor. 

Kerr's Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 

Leonard's Machine Shop Tools and Methods 8vo, 

* Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean) . . . 8vo, 
MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 

Mechanical Drawing 4to, 

Velocity Diagrams 8vo, 

MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases 8vo, 

Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson) 8vo, 

Oberg's Screw Thread Systems, Taps, Dies, Cutters, and Reamers. (In 
Press.) 

* Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design Small 4to, half leather, 

Peele's Compressed Air Plant for Mines 8vo, 

Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 

* Porter's Engineering Reminiscences, 1855 to 1882 8vo, 

Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 

Richard's Compressed Air nmo, 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 

Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 

Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals 8vo, 

Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design 8vo, 

Sorel ' s Carbureting and Combustion in Alcohol Engines . (Woodward and Preston) . 

Large 12 mo, 

Thurston's Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. 

nmo, 

Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill Work... 8vo, 

Tillson's Complete Automobde Instructor i6mo, 

mor. 

Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing Oblong 8vo, 

Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 

* Waterbury's Vest Pocket Hand Book of Mathematics for Engineers. 

2|X 5s inches, mor. 1 00 

Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann — 

Klein) 8vo, 5 00 

Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann — Klein).. .8vo, 5 00 

Wood's Turbines 8vo, 2 50 

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING 

* Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50 

Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering 8vo, 7 50 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00 

* Greene's Structural Mechanics . 8vo, 2 50 

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Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes. 

Large i2mo, 

Johnson's Materials of Construction 8vo, 

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 

Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles i2mo, 

Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning) 8vo, 

Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 

* Strength of Materials i2mo, 

Metcaif's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 

Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 

Smith's Materials of Machines i2mo, 

Thurston's Materials of Engineering 3 vols., 8vo, 

Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy. . .8vo, 

Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 

Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 

Constituents 8vo » 

Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 

Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on the 

Preservation of Timber 8vo, 2 00 

Wood's <M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and 

Steel 8v0 > 4 00 

STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 

Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram i2mo, 

Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston) i2mo, 

Chase's Art of Pattern Making i2mo, 

Creighton's Steam-engine and other Heat-motors 8vo, 

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book i6mo, mor. 

Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers i8mo, 

* Gebhardt's Steam Power Plant Engineering 8vo, 

Goss's Locomotive Performance 8vo » 

Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy i2mo, 

Hutton's Heat and Heat-engines 8vo < 

Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants 8vo, 

Kent's Steam boiler Economy 8v o» 

Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector 8 vo, 

MacCord's Siide-valves , • • • 8vo > 

Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4*o, 

Moyer's Steam Turbines. (In Press.) 

Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator i2mo> 

Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors 8vo, 

Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines 8vo, 

Valve-gears for Steam-engines 8vo, 

Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers 8vo, 

Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator Large 8vo, 

Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors. 

(Osterberg) i2mo, 1 25 

Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition. 

Large nmo. 

Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management i2mo, 

Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice nmo, 

Snow's Steam-boiler Practice 8 vo, 

Spangler's Notes on Thermodynamics i2mo, 

Valve-gears _ ; 8vo > 

Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 

Thomas's Steam-turbines 8v °i 

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Thurston's Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indi- 
cator and the Prony Brake Evo, 

Handy Tables 8vo , 

Manual of Steam-boilers, their esigns, Construction, and Operation. .8vo, 

Thurston's Manual of the Steam-engine 2 vols., 8vo, 

Part I. History, Structure, and Theory 8v^, 

Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 

Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice nmo, 

Wehrenfenning's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water (Patterson) 3vo, 

Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engiies. (Du Bois) 8vo, 

Whitham's Steam-engine Design 8vo, 

Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines. . .8vo, 

MECHANICS PURE AND APPLIED. 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 

Notes and Examples in Mechanics 8vo, 

Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and Schools. . nmo, 
Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics: 

Vol. I. Kinematics 8vo, 

Vol. II. Statics 8vo, 

Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4t©, 

Vol. II, Small 4to, 

* Greene's Structural Mechanics . . 8vo, 

James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle. 

Large i2mo, 

* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics nmo, 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 

* Martin's Text Book on Mechanics, Vol. I, Statics nmo, 

* Vol. 2, Kinematics and Kinetics . .nmo, 
Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 

* Merriman's Elements of Mechanics nmo, 

Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 

* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 

Sanborn's Mechanics Problems Large nmo, 

Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 

Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 

Principles of Elementary Mechanics nmo, 

ME11CAL. 

* Abderhalden's Physiological Chemistry in Thirty Lectures. (Hall and Defren) 

8vo, 
von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan) nmo, 

* Bolduan's Immune Sera nmo, 

Bordet's Contribution to Immunity. (Gay). (In Preparation.) 
Davenport's Statistical Methods with Special Reference to Biological Varia- 
tions i6mo, mor. 

Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan) 8vo, 

* Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation Large nmo, cloth, 

de Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins) Large nmo, 

Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel) 8vo, 

Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry. ..8vo, 

Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz) nmo, 

Mandel's Hand Book for the Bi -Chemical Laboratory. .. nmo, 

* Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer) nmo, 

* Pozzi-Escot's Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies. (Cohn) nmo, 

Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan) nmo, 

Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions 8vo. 

Whys in Pharmacy 12 mo, 

16 



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Salkowsk:'s Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff) 8vo, 2 

* Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology i2mo, 1 

Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students 8vo, 2 

Steel's Treat ; se on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 3 

* Whipple's Typhoid Fever Large nmo, 3 

Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene i6mo, 1 

* Personal Hyoriene i?mo, 1 

Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals Establishment and Maintenance, 

and S ggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small 

Hospital i2ino, 1 

METALLURGY, 

Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis 8vo, 4 

Bolland's Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used 

in the Practice of Moulding i2mo, 3 

Iron Founder 1 2mo, 2 

" " Supplement i2mo, 2 

Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects i2mo, 1 

Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book i6mo, mor. 3 

* Iles's Lead-smelting i2mo, 2 

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 

LeChatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard — Burgess) i2mo, 3 

Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 2 

Miller's Cyanide Process i2mo, 1 

Minet's Production of Aluminium and its Industrial Use. (Waldo) . . .i2mo, 2 

Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc) 8vo, 4 

Ruer's Elements of Metallography. (Mathewson) (In Press.) 

Smith's Materials of Machines i2mo, 1 

Tate and Stone's Foundry Practice. (In Press.) 

Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts • 8vo, 

Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy. . .8vo, 

Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 

Part III. A Treatise on Erssses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 

Constituents 8vo, 

Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 

West's American Foundry Practice i2mo, 

Moulder's Text Book i2mo, 

Wilson's Chlorination Process i2mo, 

Cyanide Processes i2mo, 

MINERALOGY. 

Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial Value Oblong, mor. 2 50 

Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo, 3 00 

Boyd's Map of Southwest Virginia Pocket-book form. 2 00 

* Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements 8vo, 1 50 

Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield) ,. 8vo, 4 00 

Butler's Pocket Hand-Book of Minerals i6mo, mor. 3 00 

Chester's Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, paper, 1 00 

Cloth, 1 25 

* Crane's Gold and Silver 8vo, 5 00 

Dana's First Appendix to Dana's New " System of Mineralogy. .". .Large 8vo, 1 00 

Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography nmo 2 00 

Minerals and How to Study Them nmo, 1 50 

System of Mineralogy Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50 

Tex + -book of Mineralogy 8vo, 4 00 

Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects i2mo, 1 00 

Eakle's Mineral Tables 8vo, 1 25 

Stone and Clay Froducts Used in Engineering. (In Preparation.) 

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Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms 8vo, 

Goesei's Minerals and Metals : A Reference Book i6mo, mor. 

Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall) nmo, 

* Iddmes's Rock Minerals . .... 8vo, 

Johannsen's Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections 8vo, 

* Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe. i2mo, 
Merrill's Non-metailic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses 8vo, 

Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 

* Penfieid's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests. 

8vo, paper, 50 

Tables of Minerals, Including the Use of Minerals and Statistics of 

Domestic Production 8vo, 1 00 

* Pirsson's Rocks and Rock Minerals nmo, 2 50 

* Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters i2mo, mor. 1 25 

* Ries's Clays: Their Occurrence Properties, and Uses 8vo, 5 00 

* Tidman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks 8vo, 2 00 

MINING. 

* Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions Large nmo, 

Boyd's Map of Southwest Viiginia Pocket-book torm, 

Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo, 

* Crane's Gold and Silver 8vo, 

Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects nmo, 

Eissler's Modern High txplosives 8vo, 

Goesei's Minerals and Metals : A Reference Book i6mo, mor. 

I lseng's Manual of Mining, 8vo, 

* Iles's Lead-smelting. . nmo, 

Miller's Cyanide Process nmo, 

O'DriscoU's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores Svo, 

Peele's Compressed Air Plant for Mines 8vo, 

Riemer's Shaft Sinking Under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele) . . .8vo, 
Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc) 8vo, 

* Weaver's M'Ttary Explosives 8vo, 

Wilson's Cblorination Process nmo, 

Cyanide Processes nmo, 

Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 21? edition, rewritten nmo, 

Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation nmo, 

SANITARY SCIENCE. 

Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, Hartford Meeting, 

1 906 . 8vo, 

Jamestown Meeting, 1907 8vo, 

* Bashore's Outlines of Practical Sanitation nmo, 

Sanitation of a Country House nmo, 

Sanitation of Recreation Camps and Parks nmo, 

Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance) 8vo, 

Water-supply Engineering Svo, 

Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses nmo, 

Fuertes's Water-filtration Works nmo, 

Water and Public Health nmo, 

Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection i6mo, 

* Modern Baths and Bath Houses 8vo, 

Sanitation of Public Buildings nmo, 

Hazen's Clam Water and How to Get It Large nmo, 

Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, 

Kinnicut, Winslow and Pratt's Purification of Sewage. (In Press.) 

Leach's Inso°ction and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State 

Control 8vo, 7 00 

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Mason's Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological) nmo, 

Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint) . . 8vo, 

* Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo, 

Ogden's Sewer Design nmo, 

Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse 8vo, 

Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer- 
ence to Sanitary Water Analysis i2mo, 

* Price's Handbook on Sanitation i2ino 

Richards's Cost of Cleanness. A Twentieth Century Problem i2mo, 

Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries i2mo, 

Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science i2mo, 

Cost of Shelter. A Study in Economics i2mo, 

* Richards and Williams's Dietary Computer 8vo, 

Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand- 
point 8vo, 

Rideal's Disinfection and the Preservation of Food 8vo, 

Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 

Soper's Air and Ventilation of Subways Large nmo, 

Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 

Venable's Garbage Crematories in America 8vo, 

Method and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage 8vo, 

Ward and Whipple's Freshwater Biology nmo, 

Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 

* Typhod Fever Large nmo, 

Value of Pure Water Largetnmo, 

Winslow's Bacterial Classification nmo, 

Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods 8vo, 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the 

International Congress of Geologists Large 8vo, 

Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds 8vo, 

Fitzgerald's Bostoa Machinist i8mo, 

Gannett's Statistical Abstract of the World 24m©, 

Haines's American Railway Management nmo, 

* Hanusek's The Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton) 8vo, 

Owen's The Dyeing and Cleaning of Textile Fabrics. (Standage). (In Press.) 
Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 1824-1894. 

Large nmo, 

Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament , . „ Large 8vo, 

Standage's Decoration of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc nmo, 

Thome's Structural and Physiological Botany. (Bennett) i6mo, 

Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider) 8vo, 

Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy nmo, 



HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS. 

Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar nmo, 1 25 

'Jesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures. 



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